vai a:
POLITICA DEI TRASPORTI, REGIME DELL'AUTOMOBILE
Fabienne Cantner, Nico Nachtigall, Lisa S. Hamm, Andrea Cadavid, Lennart Adenaw, Allister Loder, Markus B. Siewert, Sebastian Goerg, Markus Lienkamp, Klaus Bogenberger
(TUM Technical University of Munich),
A nation-wide experiment: fuel tax cuts and almost free public transport for three months in Germany - Report 2 First wave results. Preprint.
arXiv:2206.10510, June 23, 2022, 13 p. [formato PDF, 3,7 MB].
"In spring 2022, the German federal government agreed on a set of measures that aim at reducing households' financial burden resulting from a recent price increase, especially in energy
and mobility. These measures include among others, a nation-wide public transport ticket for 9 EUR per month and a fuel tax cut that reduces fuel prices by more than 15%. In transportation
research this is an almost unprecedented behavioral experiment. It allows to study not only behavioral responses in mode choice and induced demand but also to assess the effectiveness of
transport policy instruments. We observe this natural experiment with a three-wave survey and an app-based travel diary on a sample of hundreds of participants as well as an analysis of
traffic counts. In this second report, we update the information on study participation, provide first insights on the smartphone app usage as well as insights on the first wave results,
particularly on the 9 EUR-ticket purchase intention."
Decarbonizzare i trasporti. Evidenze scientifiche e proposte di policy.
Primo Rapporto elaborato dagli esperti della Struttura Transizione Ecologica della Mobilità e delle Infrastrutture (STEMI) del Ministero delle Infrastrutture e della Mobilità Sostenibili (MIMS).
MIMS, Ministero delle Infrastrutture e della Mobilità Sostenibili, aprile 2022, 100 p. [formato PDF, 5,0 MB].
"Il primo Rapporto realizzato dalla struttura istituita nel 2021 dal Ministro risponde alla necessità di fornire una base conoscitiva solida, fondata sullo stato della ricerca in tema di
tecnologie per la decarbonizzazione dei trasporti, per assumere le decisioni politiche più opportune per accelerare la transizione ecologica e il raggiungimento degli obiettivi di riduzione
delle emissioni di CO2 ed inquinanti con il miglior rapporto costi-benefici, nonché il rafforzamento della competitività dell'economia italiana e il miglioramento della qualità
della vita dei cittadini.
Il Rapporto STEMI si articola in varie sezioni dedicate alle diverse modalità di trasporto - automobili, veicoli commerciali, autobus per trasporto pubblico locale, treni, navi,
aerei - e analizza le tecnologie disponibili e le infrastrutture necessarie alla decarbonizzazione in termini di efficienza, costo, potenzialità di riduzione delle emissioni e scalabilità
industriale nel contesto italiano."
Robert Hrelja & Tom Rye,
Decreasing the share of travel by car. Strategies for implementing 'push' or 'pull' measures in a traditionally car-centric transport and land use planning.
International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 2022, 14 p., [formato PDF, 1,6 MB]. Open Access.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15568318.2022.2051098
"This paper analyzes strategies that can be successfully pursued to implement measures to reduce car traffic in what has traditionally been a very car-centric planning praxis. Analytically,
the paper use path dependency theory to provide an understanding of why certain types of measure are not implemented in cities on as widespread a basis as policy objectives may require, and to
understand how transport planning path dependence in urban authorities might be changed. Empirically, the analysis builds on a comparative case study of transport and land use planning in Swedish
cities. The most effective strategies do not appear to be radical policies leading to fast implementation of goals about sustainable transport, for example by implementing very car restrictive
measures, even in the face of resistance from the public and from within the city administration. The results support an approach that from a strategy making perspective can be understood as an
institutionalizing process by which internal organizational and external public support for car restrictive and potentially controversial measures are built. Implementation may be achieved by
building new institutions within city administrations, where routines and norms gradually change so that car restraint measures gradually become part of the normal way of doing transport planning.
This then starts to lock-in certain patterns of travel and make further car restraint measures more feasible and institutionalized as part of a standard menu of measures that cities use, and not
something out of the order."
Fernando Gil-Alonso, Cristina López-Villanueva and Jenniffer Thiers-Quintana (Universitat de Barcelona),
Transition towards a Sustainable Mobility in a Suburbanising Urban Area: The Case of Barcelona.
Sustainability 2022, 14(5), 2560 (32 p.) [formato PDF, 7,7 MB]. Open Access.
"This article aims to address the apparent contradiction between the urban demographic and migratory trends and the transition
towards a more sustainable mobility that local and metropolitan governments seek. To that end, it uses the case of Barcelona, and
its metropolitan area during the first decades of the 21st century, characterized by suburbanisation and gentrification. Employing
demographic, mobility and transport, and air quality statistics, we intend to analyse: (a) the spatial demographic trends in the
metropolitan area of Barcelona (AMB), particularly regarding the core and periphery population growth or decline; (b) trends in
daily mobility and how the public and private transport mix has changed; and (c) pollution data changes confirming the success or
failure of the private vehicle reduction policy. Findings confirm our initial hypothesis: the slow but steady transition towards
sustainable forms of mobility in the core city and the dense contiguous municipalities is counterbalanced by what occurs in the
peripheral suburbs. There, the use of private vehicles is still preeminent and growing. Nevertheless, the air quality has improved
in the most central municipalities of the AMB (for which data are available), even if not all parameters have seen a similar
pollution reduction."
Paula Kuss, Kimberly A. Nicholas (Lund University Centre for Sustainability Studies),
A dozen effective interventions to reduce car use in European cities: Lessons learned from a meta-analysis and Transition Management.
Case Studies on Transport Policy (2022), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cstp.2022.02.001 (16 p.) [formato PDF, 1,1 MB]. Open Access.
"Transitioning to fossil-free transport and reducing car use are necessary to meet European and national climate goals. Cities are promising leverage points to facilitate system transitions
by promoting local innovation and policy experimentation. Building on transition management, we developed a knowledge base for the implementation of transition experiments to reduce city-level
car use. From screening nearly 800 peer-reviewed studies and case studies, including in-depth analysis of 24 documents that met quality criteria and quantitatively estimated car use reduction,
we identify 12 intervention types combining different measures and policy instruments that were effective in reducing car use in European cities. Most interventions were led by local government,
planned and decided in collaboration with different urban stakeholders. We evaluated the potential of the identified intervention types to be implemented in a pilot study of Lund, Sweden, using
three criteria from Transition Management of novelty, feasibility, and suitability, as assessed by interviews with local experts. We recommend three transition experiments to reduce local car
use in Lund: Parking and Traffic Control, Workplace Parking Charge, and Mobility Services for Commuters. We suggest practitioners follow our method to identify effective and locally suitable
interventions to reduce car use, and future research quantify the effectiveness of interventions to reduce car use using the standardised outcome measure of annual passenger kilometres travelled
by car.
Natalie Gravett, Luis Mundaca (International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University),
Assessing the economic benefits of active transport policy pathways: Opportunities from a local perspective.
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 11 (2021) 100456 (17 p.) [formato PDF, 8,8 MB]. Open Access.
"Combined with concerns about climate change, air pollution and human health, the COVID-19 pandemic has renewed the use of and policy interest in active transport (AT) modes, namely cycling
and walking. However, we note a high degree of uncertainty and lack of assessments addressing the economic benefits of AT policies; particularly when they are used as a mix of policies at the local
level. This study aims to address this knowledge gap. We use the city of Oxford as a case study and apply the WHO Health Economic Assessment Tool and different baselines to assess four policy
packages promoting a mode shift to AT for the 2030-2050 period. In total, 312 policy scenarios were produced and analysed. Results show that a policy mix that maximises economic benefits entails
bike-sharing, cycle parking, training and education, low traffic neighbourhoods, e-bike grants, a workplace parking levy and increased use of a 'cycle-to-work' Scheme. Considering the health
impacts from increased physical activity and avoided CO2 emissions, benefits are estimated in the range of: 62-256 prevented premature deaths; 18-50 million tonnes of avoided CO2e emissions; resulting
in a total gross benefit of €3.45-11.28 billion. These impacts remain high and robust when key input parameters are tested via a sensitivity analysis. We conclude that investing in AT policy
measures represents a multi-faceted low-carbon opportunity that should not be missed by policymakers."
Stefan Gössling, Jessica Kees, Todd Litman,
The lifetime cost of driving a car.
Ecological Economics 194 (2022) 107335 (10 p.) [formato PDF, 722 kB]. Open Access.
The car is one of the most expensive household consumer goods, yet there is a limited understanding of its private (internal) and social (external) cost per vehicle-km, year, or lifetime
of driving. This paper provides an overview of 23 private and ten social cost items, and assesses these for three popular car models in Germany for the year 2020. Results confirm that motorists
underestimate the full private costs of car ownership, while policy makers and planners underestimate social costs. For the typical German travel distance of 15,000 car kilometers per year, the
total lifetime cost of car ownership (50 years) ranges between €599,082 for an Opel Corsa to €956,798 for a Mercedes GLC. The share of this cost born by society is 41% (€4674 per year) for the
Opel Corsa, and 29% (€5273 per year) for the Mercedes GLC. Findings suggest that for low-income groups, private car ownership can represent a cost equal to housing, consuming a large share of
disposable income. This creates complexities in perceptions of transport costs, the economic viability of alternative transport modes, or the justification of taxes."
Marko Germani, Dario Zanette,
La dieta elettrica del traffico. Utili riflessioni per le associazioni ambientaliste interessate a gestire proattivamente l'imminente transizione energetica dei trasporti e per
chiunque voglia saperne di più sulla mobilità presente e futura.
Sapere, febbraio 2021, 22-27 (6 p.) [formato PDF, 867 kB]. Open Access.
"Questo articolo nasce a seguito di una serie di ragionamenti fatti dagli autori (ciclisti urbani e automobilisti elettrici) nel corso degli anni, a loro volta frutto della perplessità nel
vedere i vari movimenti ambientalisti avere posizioni labili, contraddittorie e inefficaci sul tema della mobilità sostenibile.
Se da un lato la società civile sta lentamente prendendo coscienza dell'emergenza climatica, dall'altro c'è scarsa conoscenza delle soluzioni possibili e molta confusione sull'efficacia dei
singoli strumenti. In particolare, se da una parte nell'ultimo decennio efficienza e risparmio energetico, produzione da rinnovabili e stoccaggio hanno avuto sviluppi impressionanti, dall'altra
il marketing dell'industria automobilistica e petrolifera sta facendo notevoli sforzi per rallentare il più possibile l'abbandono del business as usual, gettando discredito su forme di mobilità
diverse da quella automobilistica privata e su qualsiasi proposta radicale e necessaria per la salvaguardia dell'ecosistema in cui viviamo.
È necessario un position paper del mondo ambientalista, unitario e basato sull'evidenza scientifica che tratti in modo obiettivo il tema del futuro dell'auto privata, evitando sia di minimizzare
il problema che di finire in massimalismi sterili e irrealizzabili.
I pensieri qui esposti vogliono essere uno spunto di dibattito per chi volesse fissare dei paletti ed essere parte attiva e propositiva nella necessaria e inevitabile trasformazione dello
scenario italiano ed europeo della mobilità, senza però perdersi nel mare delle false alternative e del green washing (l'ecologismo di facciata) di certa industria."
Annina Thaller, Alfred Posch, Anna Dugan, Karl Steininger (University of Graz),
How to design policy packages for sustainable transport: Balancing disruptiveness and implementability.
Transportation Research Part D 91 (2021) 102714 (12 p.) [formato PDF, 1,6 MB]. Open Access.
"In order to achieve emission reduction targets in the passenger transport sector, the demand side and especially the mobility behavior of consumers deserve special attention. It is unlikely
that such behavior will change without significant political intervention, nor will single policy instruments be sufficient to induce the needed changes. In this study, therefore, we analyze the
design of so-called disruptive policy packages required to drastically reduce passenger transport emissions in industrialized countries and illustrate it for the case of Austria. Our research
approach consists of three methods: a literature review to develop a policy category system, expert interviews to build effective policy packages and a stakeholder workshop to identify the
specific needs of different geographical areas. For the design of successful policy packages, we identify two critical dimensions, disruptiveness (having high-level and rapid effectiveness)
and implementability. A well-balanced combination of diverse policy instruments is required to adequately address both dimensions."
Fabio Hirschhorn, Didier van de Velde, Wijnand Veeneman, Ernst ten Heuvelhof (Delft University of Technology),
The governance of attractive public transport: Informal institutions, institutional entrepreneurs, and problem-solving know-how in Oslo and Amsterdam.
Research in Transportation Economics (2020) in press (11 p.) [formato PDF, 545 kB]. Open Access.
"Public authorities are under mounting pressure to promote more sustainable urban mobility, including a modal shift from cars. With an empirical focus on Oslo and Amsterdam metropolitan areas,
this paper analyses how the interplay between formal frameworks, informal institutions, and individuals' agency can contribute to making public transport more attractive in relation to other modes.
Findings indicate that formal frameworks, informal institutions, and key actors co-exist and interact in complementary, substitutive, and accommodating manner; they work alongside each other to
facilitate collective decision-making on issues ranging from integrating land use and transport to dealing with budget constraints. By identifying these types of interaction, this study shows that,
to advance transport sustainability, authorities not only need insight on what policies to design, but can also benefit from understanding how policy-making and implementation unfold. A broader
insight offered by the paper is that financial performance goals appear as a main policy driver in public transport, eclipsing sustainability concerns."
Liu Shaokun,
Can Chinese Cities Leave the Car Behind? Gridlock, Pollution and the Future of Public Transportation.
The Asia-Pacific Journal, Japan Focus, Volume 16, Issue 14, Number 2, Jul 15, 2018, pp. 1-9 [formato PDF, 2,2 MB].
"For years, China's city planners have prioritised cars, but they're now taking a different route. Investing in public transport, supplemented by the electric bike and
shared bike, are among the ways Chinese cities are trying to minimise car use."
Lew Fulton, Jacob Mason, Dominique Meroux,
Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation. How to achieve the full potential of vehicle electrification, automation and shared mobility in urban transportation systems
around the world by 2050. Report. UC Davis, ITDP (Institute for Transportation & Development Policy), New York, 2017, 41 p. [formato PDF, 2,4 MB].
"The new report was produced by the University of California, Davis, and the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. It compares the environmental and fiscal impacts of
three scenarios involving new transportation technology:
1) Business-as-usual (BAU) scenario-Through 2050, we continue to use vehicles with internal combustion engines at an increased rate, and use transit and shared vehicles at the current rate,
as population and income grow over time.
2) Revolutions (2R) scenario-We embrace more technology. Electric vehicles become common by 2030, and automated electric vehicles become dominant by 2040. However, we continue our current
embrace of single-occupancy vehicles, with even more car travel than in the BAU.
3) Revolutions (3R) scenario-We take the embrace of technology in the 2R scenario and then maximize the use of shared vehicle trips. By 2050, cities have ubiquitous private car sharing,
increased transit performance-with on-demand availability-and strengthened infrastructure
for walking and cycling, allowing maximum shared trip efficiency."
Xiao Zhao, Anjali Mahendra, Nick Godfrey, Holger Dalkmann, Philipp Rode, Graham Floater,
Unlocking the power of urban tranport systems for better growth and a better climate. Technical note.
New Climate Economy, London and Washington, DC, 2016, 32 p. [formato PDF, 1,27 MB].
"Sustainable transport systems are crucial for underpinning the economic performance and prosperity of nations. They
are also critical for tackling global climate change, improving road safety and reducing local air pollution. This is particularly
the case in the world’s urban areas, as the majority of transport trips take place in and between cities. Each week, 1.4 million
people are being added to urban areas, and urban travel constitutes more than 60% of all the kilometres travelled
globally, the largest single source of global transport-related carbon emissions.
The business-as-usual pattern of urbanisation and transport mobility in many regions remains characterised
by unplanned sprawl and inter-city and intra-city transport networks dominated by conventional motorisation. The
complex interaction between urban development and transport connectivity has led to declining urban densities, a reduction
in the share of non-motorised transport and public transport, and enormous growth in private vehicles. An area the size of
Manhattan is being added to urban areas each and every day. A continuation of this pattern could lead to the global urban land
area tripling and the number of motorised vehicles in the world doubling by 2030.
These trends have already created a wide range of economic, social and environmental costs, which can
significantly constrain improvements in quality of life. The total social cost of Beijing’s dependence on motorised
transport, including congestion and air pollution, is estimated at 7.5–15.0% of GDP. China added 17 million new cars in 2014
alone. In the United States, work by the New Climate Economy (NCE) demonstrates that urban sprawl costs over US$1 trillion
per annum, including US$400 billion in costs to the public purse and more than US$600 billion in costs related to private
vehicle use."
Hans Jakob Walnum, Carlo Aall and Søren Løkke,
Can Rebound Effects Explain Why Sustainable Mobility Has Not Been Achieved?.
Sustainability 2014, 6, 9510-9537 (28 p.) [formato PDF, 525 kB]. Open Access.
"Since the report “Our Common Future” launched sustainable development as a primary goal for society in 1987, both scientific and political discussions about the term’s
definition and how to achieve sustainable development have ensued. The manifold negative environmental impacts of transportation are an important contributor to the so-far
non-sustainable development in financially rich areas of the world. Thus, achieving sustainable mobility is crucial to achieving the wider challenge of sustainable development.
In this article, we limit our sustainability focus to that of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We discuss whether rebound effects can reveal why sustainable mobility
has not been reached. Rebound effects refer to behavioral or other systemic responses after the implementation of new technologies or other measures to reduce energy consumption.
Three main strategies exist for achieving sustainable mobility: efficiency, substitution, and volume reduction. (1) The efficiency strategy is based on the idea that environmental
problems caused by transport can be improved by developing new and more efficient technologies to replace old, inefficient, and polluting materials and methods; (2) The second
strategy—substitution—argues for a change to less polluting means of transport; (3) The volume reduction strategy argue that efficiency and substitution are not sufficient, we must
fundamentally change behavior and consumption patterns; people must travel less, and freight volumes must decrease. We found rebound effects associated with all three of the
main strategies that will lead to offsetting expected savings in energy use and GHG emissions in the transport sector."
Philipp Rode, Graham Floater, Nikolas Thomopoulos, James Docherty, Peter Schwinger, Anjali Mahendra, and Wanli Fang,
Accessibility in Cities: Transport and Urban Form. (NCE Cities Paper 03). LSE Cities, London School of
Economics and Political Science, London, 2014, 61 p. [formato PDF, 1,24 MB].
"This paper focusses on one central aspect of urban development: transport and urban form and how the two
shape the provision of access to people, goods and services, and information in cities. The more efficient this access, the
greater the economic benefits through economies of scale, agglomeration effects and networking advantages. This
paper discusses how different urban accessibility pathways impact directly on other measures of human development
and environmental sustainability. It also presents the enabling conditions for increasing accessibility and low-carbon mobility in cities.
In summary, this paper suggests that more compact urban growth, aligned with the increased provision of public transport
infrastructure and services and pro-active support for non-motorised transport use, is likely to deliver substantial net economic
and social benefits. Despite this, current urban development trajectories across much of the world diverge considerably from
more efficient urban accessibility pathways. This paper provides an overview of current global patterns and trends in the
physical development of cities and related urban mobility behaviour. Overall, cities continue to sprawl excessively, with some
estimates suggesting that total urban land area could triple between 2000 and 2030. Similarly, in many key emerging economies
(such as China and India), private motorised vehicle use and modal share is expanding rapidly, with a range of negative economic
and social implications. At the same time, however, evidence on tipping points towards more sustainable development
trajectories is emerging in cities across different wealth levels. As a result of socio-demographic change, shifting public opinion,
strong political leadership and technological innovation, some cities are moving towards a more compact and public-transport
oriented urban development model with increasing shares of non-motorised transport.
The last section of this paper then discusses the key policy areas (and related instruments) relevant to enabling spatially- and
energy-efficient urban development. Undertaking strategic spatial planning in relation to key infrastructure developments,
managing compact urban growth by identifying areas for intensification rather than simply restricting development, and closely
integrating the provision of housing with public transport are among the key planning approaches adopted by leading city
governments. In addition, the strategic use of incentives and revenue mobilisation instruments is recognised as essential to
ensuring the availability of financing for urban infrastructure investment, respecting the ‘polluter pays’ principle and creating
positive feedback mechanisms between infrastructure investment, transport modal choice and urban form."
Stefan Gössling, Scott A. Cohen,
Why sustainable transport policies will fail: European Union climate policy in the light of transport taboos.
Journal of Transport Geography (in press, 2014) (36 p.) [formato PDF, 525 kB].
"There is widespread consensus that current climate policy for passenger transportation is insufficient to achieve significant emission
reductions in line with global climate stabilization goals. This article consequently has a starting point in the notion of ‘path
dependency’ (Schwanen, Banister and Anable 2011) and an observed ‘implementation gap’ (Banister and Hickman 2012), suggesting that
significant mitigation policies for transport do not emerge in the European Union because of various interlinked ‘transport taboos’,
i.e. barriers to the design, acceptance and implementation of such transport policies that remain unaddressed as they constitute
political risk. The paper argues that without addressing transport taboos, such as highly unequal individual contributions to transport
volumes and emissions, social inequality of planned market-based measures, the role of lobbyism, and the various social and
psychological functions of mobility, it will remain difficult to achieve significant emission reductions in passenger transport. Yet,
transport taboos remain largely ignored among EU policy makers because their discussion would violate ‘order’, i.e. harm specific
interests within neoliberal governance structures and the societal foundations and structures of transport systems built on these."
Giuseppe Calabrese,
Scenari e politiche industriali per l’auto ecologica,
Rivista di Economia e Politica dei Trasporti (REPoT), 2013, n° 3, articolo 2, 14 p. [formato PDF, 270 kB]
"La ricerca di nuovi metodi di propulsione per le automobili è oggetto di intenso dibattito a tutti i livelli a causa del riscaldamento globale, delle emissioni degli agenti inquinanti e più in generale per la necessità di sviluppare in modo sostenibile l’industria automobilistica. In un prossimo futuro, il panorama più pro-babile sarà la coesistenza di un portafoglio di tecnologie sviluppate per soddisfare segmenti di utenti di-versi, in termini di prestazioni del veicolo, con una predominanza dei veicoli convenzionali.
Il presente articolo dopo aver presentato le diverse traiettorie tecnologiche per la mobilità sostenibile si sofferma sui possibili scenari industriali - della diversità, della gradualità e della rottura - che si stanno delineando rimarcandone le condizioni necessarie per la loro realizzazione e le possibili conseguenze. In ciascun scenario emerge preponderante la necessità di adeguate politiche industriali, ma anche la consta-tazione dei limiti relativi all’auto elettrica, dovuti anche alla presenza di numerosi fattori limitanti tali da generare una sorta di path dependance.
L’articolo si conclude con alcune proposte di policy per favorire il progressivo superamento di tali limi-tazioni e promuovere un nuovo paradigma industriale per il settore automotive."
Claire Papaix, Bénédicte Meurisse,
Overview of the policy toolbox for low-carbon road mobility in the European Union.
(Information and debates Series n. 26). Chaire Economie du Climat, Paris, July 2013, 45 p. [formato PDF, 1,04 MB]
"The transition to sustainable transport, which necessarily implies low-carbon transport, will require
a major structural shift in both passenger and freight transport systems. Indeed, rapidly increasing
traffic and a high dependency on fossil fuels have made transport a crucial but also a challenging
issue with regard to the action required to fight climate change. Indeed, CO2 emissions from
transport have been sharply increasing over the last decades contrary to the observed trends in the
other industrial sectors. Since road represents most of carbon emissions we choose to focus in this
report solely on the levers for reducing emissions from road mobility systems.
When it comes to the means to steer low-carbon road mobility, most of transport’s carbon
emissions are not directly covered by "first best" (CO2-oriented) economic instruments, such as
fossil fuel taxation, or very heterogeneously in Europe when it is the case. Therefore, we propose ic this report a
French and European review of such "first best" and "second best" (not directly CO2-oriented) policy-tools for rolling
out low-carbon transport systems. In particular, command-and-control
levers, economic instruments, collaborative initiatives and information and communication
policies – applying both to the demand and the supply side of road transportation will be thoroughly analyzed here.
Beyond the proposed framing and efficiency appraisal of the policy-tools, one of the key outcomes
of this report is that such regulation package for reducing carbon in transport emissions may be
recognized as opportunities for innovation and growth rather than constraints if consistently
anticipated and time-wisely influenced by all the actors."
Claus Doll, Johannes Hartwig, Florian Senger, Markus Maibach, Daniel Sutter, Damaris Bertschmann, Udo Lambrecht, Wolfram Knörr, Frank Dünnebeil,
Wirtschaftliche Aspekte nichttechnischer Maßnahmen zur Emissionsminderung im Verkehr
(Economic aspects of non-technical measures to reduce traffic emissions). (Texte 11/2013).
Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, März 2013, 199 p. [formato PDF, 1,91 MB]
"Ziel und Ansatz: Die Studie untersucht die Wirkungen ausgewählter Maßnahmen der Verkehrspolitik für Umwelt,
Verkehrsteilnehmer, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft bis zum Jahr 2030. Betrachtet werden Verlagerungen zu Fuß-,
Radverkehr und ÖPNV, Verkürzung von Pkw-Fahrten und effizientere Autonutzung im Personenverkehr, sowie mehr
Bahn im Güterverkehr. Aus Perspektive der Verkehrsteilnehmer werden private Kosten, Fahrzeit, Gesundheitseffekte,
Schadstoff- und Treibhausgasemissionen, Lärm und Verkehrssicherheit bewertet. dynamischen Verkehrs- und Wirtschaftsmodell ASTRA-D analysiert.
Ergebnisse: Die Umweltwirkungen der Maßnahmen divergieren stark und werden von den Kosten durch Treibhausgasemissionen dominiert. Maßnahmen, die den Fernverkehr einschließen,
erzielen größere Emissionsreduktionen als rein städtische Maßnahmen. Speziell für den ÖPNV ergeben sich noch erhebliche Potenziale zur Minderung seiner externen Kosten. Aktive Mobilität
fördert die Gesundheit und reduziert das Risiko chronischer Erkrankungen. Jedoch bedarf die Sicherheit von Radfahrern und Fußgängern in Städten einer höheren Aufmerksamkeit.
Die Investitionshöhen der untersuchten Maßnahmen reichen bis 10 Mrd. Euro für die Attraktivitätssteigerung lokaler Fahrziele. Die Beschäftigung entwickelt sich hierdurch in fast allen
Maßnahmen positiv, und Das Bruttoinlandsprodukt liegt in vier von fünf Maßnahmen in 2030 leicht höher als im Referenzszenario.
Empfehlung: Sinnvolle Maßnahmenpakete können die Effektivität und Effizienz der Verkehrspolitik deutlich steigern. Im Zentrum stehen dabei Ansätze des "Push & Pull" im Sinne einer
Verlagerungs- und Finanzierungsstrategie."
"Aim and methodology: This study looks at the impact of selected transport policy measures on environment,
transport users, economy and society by the year 2030. Considered are shifts to cycling, walking and public transport,
shorter car trips and more efficient car use in passenger travel, as well as more rail in freight transport. Out of the
transport user perspective private costs, travel time, health effects, air pollutant and greenhouse gas emissions, noise
and traffic safety are assessed. Macroeconomic impacts are appraised using the system-dynamics transport and economics model ASTRA-D.
Results: The environmental impacts of the measures diverge widely and are dominated by the costs of greenhouse gas emissions. Measures, which include long-distance travel, achieve higher
impacts than pure urban transport measures. In particular for public transport considerable potentials to reduce its external costs from air pollution were identified. Active mobility enhances personal
health and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. However, the safety of cyclists and pedestrians in cities requires increased attention.
The investment costs for the measures investigated differ strongly, but reach up to 10 billion euros annually for more attractive local destinations. Accordingly, employment develops positively in
almost all measures, and the gross domestic product (GDP) is slightly above the base case in 2030 in four out of the five cases.
Recommendations: sensible bundles of measures may clearly enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of transport policy. Core elements are “push-and-pull” approaches combining transport shift
and funding policies."
Claus Doll, Johannes Hartwig, Florian Senger, Markus Maibach, Daniel Sutter, Damaris Bertschmann, Udo Lambrecht, Wolfram Knörr, Frank Dünnebeil,
Economic aspects of non-technical measures to reduce traffic emissions. Summary. (Texte 11/2013).
Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, März 2013, 29 p. [formato PDF, 196 kB].
"This study looks at non-technical options to reduce the emissions of motorized road traffic. The
focus of the study is on the effect of measures to reduce emissions and the associated consequences for the private sector and the economy as a whole.
This study aims to provide an objective basis for the debate about the commercial and social consequences of more sustainable traffic behavior on the part of both individuals
and companies."
Gerardo Marletto (Univ. di Sassari),
Car and the city: Socio-technical pathways to 2030. (Contributi di Ricerca CRENoS 2013/06).
Centro Ricerche Economiche Nord Sud CRENoS, Cagliari, March 2013, 36 p. [formato PDF, 2,12 MB].
"A socio-technical approach is used to show that the future of urban mobility will depend on the competition between coalitions
of innovative actors who support alternative transport systems. The current positioning of these coalitions is mapped with reference to
innovation and power. The supporting coalition of the ‘individual car’ system benefits from a dominant position on current alternatives,
but faces external pressures for change. Three transition pathways to 2030 are considered: 1) ‘AUTO-city’, i.e. the reconfiguration of
the ‘individual car’ supporting coalition through the stable integration of producers of batteries; 2) ‘ECO-city’, i.e. the empowering
of local coalitions which integrate all non-car modes, and their diffusion from pioneering to laggard cities; 3) ‘ELECTRI-city’, i.e.
the empowering of a new coalition centered on electric operators which establish a new ‘electric vehicles + smart grids’ system. The
deployment of one or another transition pathway also depends on the ability of supporting coalitions to influence political institutions.
Without a political action for the weakening of the dominant position of the ‘individual car’ system, the ‘AUTO-city’ transition
pathway will prevail. To support the ‘ECO-city’ and the ‘ELECTRI-city’ transition pathways, a multilevel transport policy or a
national/federal industrial policy is needed, respectively."
Gerardo Marletto (Univ. of Sassari),
Get out of the car! Actors and institutions to change the transport regime,
2nd International TEMPO Conference, Oslo, 31.01-01.02.2011, 12 slides [formato PowerPoint, 627 kB].
Gerardo Marletto (Univ. of Sassari),
Structure, agency and change in the car regime. A review of the literature,
European Transport \ Trasporti Europei n. 47 (2011): 1-18 (19 p.) [formato PDF, 276 kB].
"This paper is aimed at filling the gap between the already well structured literature on the 'car regime'
and the debate on policies for sustainable transport.
Two main results emerge from the literature on the past and current evolution of the car regime:
- the car regime was established thanks to the ability of purposeful private actors to use the
technology of internal combustion to influence markets and institutions, and finally society as a whole;
- previous attempts to make urban and regional mobility more sustainable fail because multiple -
and mutually reinforcing - path-dependence phenomena lock the society into the car regime.
For the future, the dominant scenario appears to be the internal transformation of the existing car
regime, which is currently driven by the automotive industry and based on hybrid technology; the
emergence of an alternative electric car regime - driven by producers of batteries and managers of electric utilities - remains a secondary option.
Further research is needed to understand how - starting from the existing alternatives to the car and the
innovations in the car itself - a coalition of public and private actors may be promoted and sustained to
create a new regime of sustainable mobility."
Green light for light rail. (Report).
Department for Transport, London, September 2011, 61 p. [file PDF, 560 kB].
"The terms of reference for this review were: what are the key cost drivers for light rail?; and what steps could be taken to help make this mode more cost effective in the future?
In the latest light rail and tram statistics published in August 2011, passenger journeys in England for light rail and tram systems have shown to have increased by 5.5 per cent between 2009/10 and 2010/11 with 196.5 million passenger journeys in 2010/11. This represents the highest number of passenger journeys to date.
There are eight tramway/light rail systems currently in operation in England. These are in Croydon, London's Docklands, Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, Tyne and Wear, Nottingham and Blackpool.
There are currently a number of extensions to the Manchester Metrolink system under construction, funded with Central Government support and which will see Metrolink extended to Oldham and Rochdale, as well as Ashton-Under-Lyne and East Didsbury. Further extensions to the system are under active consideration by Transport for Greater Manchester, the local transport authority, using local sources of funding. In addition, the upgrade to the Blackpool and Fleetwood tramway is well underway and is nearing completion, as well as work commencing on the modernisation of the Tyne and Wear Metro.
Further extensions to existing networks are also close to final approval. These include extensions to the Midland Metro Line One into Birmingham city centre and to the Nottingham Express Transit system. In addition a new tram system in Edinburgh is being developed.
Today’s report builds on action already taken since May 2010 in support of light rail, including: - removing the requirement for light rail schemes to have a higher proportion of local contributions compared to other modes; - providing funding support to a number of light rail schemes; and - supporting a tram train pilot in South Yorkshire and working with Hertfordshire County Council/Network Rail on the possibility of converting the St Albans Abbey Line to light rail.
The review has considered evidence from the various inquiries that have taken place previously. This includes findings from the reports published by the National Audit Office, the Transport Select Committee and the All Party Parliamentary Light Rail Group. Further evidence was also provided by other organisations such as UKTram and scheme promoters, as well as research on costs of major infrastructure projects undertaken overseas for which the Department is very grateful."
"Light rail has a future in this country if capital costs can be reduced Local Transport Minister Norman Baker said today as he published a review looking at how trams can be more cost effective in the future.
Despite tram passenger numbers being at record levels, high building costs have meant that even where passenger forecasts may justify its consideration, light rail has often not been seen as an affordable option for local transport authorities.
Recommendations from the review for local authorities and industry include: - to implement a new project design of light rail systems which is uniform across the industry; - to look at lower cost schemes overseas to see whether they could be adopted in this country; and - to set up a ‘centre of procurement excellence’ to advise on the best procurement options."
"Findings show that light rail has the potential to provide high capacity transport into and around major conurbations which reduces congestion, supports growth and improves regeneration opportunities. The Department will therefore hold a summit of the light rail sector to agree a sector-led implementation plan for getting light rail on the right track.
The report found that one of the main reasons for high construction costs is the need to divert and locate utilities which lie under the road where the tram is to be built e.g. water and gas main pipes. The Department for Transport will now launch a consultation to seek views on how this system can be simplified and ultimately how costs can be reduced."
René Bormann, Michael Gehrmann, Helmut Holzapfel, Matthias Knobloch, Marion Jungbluth, Joan Mirbach, Oliver Mietzsch, Martin Stuber,
Eckpfeiler einer zukünftigen nachhaltigen Verkehrspolitik [Pietre angolari di una futura politica sostenibile dei trasporti].
(WISO Diskurs). (Diskussionspapier des Arbeitskreises Innovative Verkehrspolitik der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung).
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Bonn, August 2009, 16 p. [formato PDF, 133 kB].
Daniel Albalate, Germà Bel (Universitat de Barcelona),
"High-Speed Rail: Lessons for Policy Makers from Experiences Abroad". (IREA Working Paper 2010/03).
Institut de Recerca en Economia Aplicada Regional i Pública, Universitat de Barcelona, 2010, 34 p. [formato PDF, 704 kB].
"In April 2009 the US government unveiled its blueprint for a national network of high-speed passenger rail (HSR) lines
aimed at reducing traffic congestion, cutting national dependence on foreign oil and improving rural and urban
environments. In implementing such a program, it is essential to identify the factors that might influence decision making
and the eventual success of the HSR project, as well as foreseeing the obstacles that will have to be overcome. In this
article we review, summarize and analyze the most important HSR projects carried out to date around the globe, namely
those of Japan, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. We focus our attention on the main issues involved in the undertaking
of HSR projects: their impact on mobility, the environment, the economy and on urban centers. By so doing, we identify
lessons for policy makers and managers working on the implementation of HSR projects."
Germà Bel (Universitat de Barcelona),
Política de transporte: ¿Más recursos o mejor gestión?.
Economistas, 111 (2007), 279-284 (7 p.) [formato PDF, 126 kB].
"Sin grandes reformas en curso, la política de transporte ha seguido idénticas pautas a las de los
últimos años. Las grandes líneas establecidas a finales de los 1990s continúan marcando las prioridades de la
política, entre las que destaca la omnipresencia del tren de alta velocidad. Pero es probable que España haya
entrado ya en el club de economías maduras en grandes infraestructuras de transporte. El principal argumento
del papel es que las nuevas inversiones en infraestructuras son cada vez menos importantes para mejorar la
eficiencia y eficacia del transporte en España. Por contra, son cada vez mayores las ganancias potenciales de
bienestar derivadas de reformas en los sistemas de gestión y financiación de las infraestructuras."
José Allende, Iñaki Barcena, Rosa Lago (Universidad del País Vasco – Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea),
Carta abierta a la PTP (Lettera aperta alla PTP - Respuesta al comunicado de la PTP). 2007, 7 p. [formato PDF, 30 kB]. "Carta abierta de profesores de la UPV a la Asociación para la Promoción del Transporte Público (PTP)"-
Nel giugno 2007, a nome della Asociación para Promoción del Transporte Público en Cataluña (PTP), associazione aderente alla federazione T&E (Transport and environment),
l'ing. Pau Noy Serrano diede pubblicamente un giudizio positivo sul progetto di ferrovia ad alta velocità nel Paese Basco, la cosiddetta "Y basca", e la sua associazione
pubblicò un documento critico rispetto al manifesto contrario al progetto sottoscritto da 124 docenti e ricercatori dell'università del Paese Basco.
In risposta al comunicato della PTP catalana, tre docenti dell'università del Paese Basco hanno stilato questa lettera aperta alla PTP, in cui mettono in evidenza con grande
chiarezza che il progetto non ha nulla a che vedere con la mobilità sostenibile (cosa affermata dalla PTP) e che il progetto era inutile dal punto di vista politico,
sociale, finanziario e trasportistico, anzi dannoso perchè sottrae fondi al trasporto ferroviario locale mettendoli su linee che produrranno perdite da colmare con fondi pubblici.
Il testo si riferisce ai principali studi sul tema (De Rus, Bermejo, Vickerman, González-Savignat) e chiede alla PTP di citare fonti bibliografiche di pari valore (che invece mancano completamente
dal documento della PTP).
Todd Litman (Victoria Transport Policy Institute),
Are Vehicle Travel Reduction Targets Justified? Evaluating Mobility Management Policy Objectives Such As Targets To Reduce VMT And Increase Use Of Alternative Modes
Victoria Transport Policy Institute, Victoria, BC (Canada), September 2009, 27 p. [formato PDF, 336 kB].
"This report investigates whether transportation policies should include targets to reduce vehicle travel and encourage use of alternative modes, called mobility management
objectives. Such objectives are justified on several grounds: they help insure that individual short-term decisions support strategic goals, they provide numerous benefits,
and they help prepare for future travel demands. Many mobility management strategies are market and planning reforms that increase transport system efficiency and equity.
Mobility management criticism tends to reflect an older, automobile-oriented transportation planning paradigm which considers a limited range of objectives, impacts
and options. More comprehensive analysis tends to favor mobility management. Appropriate mobility management can reduce vehicle travel in ways that minimize costs
and maximize benefits to consumers and society."
European Environmental Agency,
Beyond transport policy - exploring and managing the external drivers of transport demand.
Illustrative case studies from Europe.
(EEA Technical Report n.12/2008). EEA, Copenhagen, [December] 2008, 90 p. [formato PDF, 4,71 MB].
"Historically, the demand for transport has been examined by placing the transport sector at the centre of the analysis, and seeking variables that explain the observed changes to transport patterns. However, transport demand and growth are normally created by decisions and developments outside the transport sector; transport is more often a means to an end, such as shopping, working and holiday trips. Decisions made in these sectors outside of transport influence the carbon footprint of the transport sector as they are often taken without considering the consequences on transport demand and greenhouse gas emissions. To tackle the challenge of increasing CO2 from transport, a detailed analysis of sectors of economic activities outside the transport sector is therefore needed.
In order to better understand these external drivers, this study formulated a conceptual framework to identify main sectors and factors which impact on demand. It shall be seen as an initial attempt to understand key sectors and factors which impact transport demand, and to identify measures that can be taken to manage demand. It is meant to facilitate the inclusion of demand management into the policy discussions on the development towards a sustainable transport system.
Following a literature review of approximately 90 publications, the factors that were identified included socio-demographic changes, economic growth and globalisation, physical changes to urban form/land use, organisational changes at workplaces and
schools, socio-cultural changes and technological developments. The key sectors consisted of retail, leisure/tourism, business, education, and industry. Both passenger and freight transport demand were examined, though it is understood that those fields of transport have different drivers of transport demand.
From a matrix of factors and sectors previously described, nine topics were identified as case study candidates, ranging from the effects of e-commerce on shopping journeys, to the demands of an ageing population on leisure trips.
A number of aspects such as carbon reduction potential, EU policy influence, cost effectiveness and political/social acceptability were considered to select the three following case studies:
Effects of food production and consumption on shopping journeys and freight traffic;
The increasing use of short-haul air travel for business and leisure travel;
Effects of 'education based' travel on transport demand."
Gerardo Marletto (Univ. di Sassari),
Getting out of the car: an institutional/evolutionary approach to sustainable transport policies.
(Contributi di Ricerca CRENoS 2008/14).
Centro Ricerche Economiche Nord Sud CRENoS, Cagliari, 2008, 14 p. [formato PDF, 183 kB].
"Orthodox economics sees transport as a market which can be made more sustainable by improving its self-regulating
capacity. To date this static approach has not been able to limit the growing demand for transport and its
increasing environmental impact. Better results might be obtained by using evolutionary and institutional
economics. Starting from these theories, a sustainable transport policy should be based on three fundamental
considerations. First, transport is not a market, but a sum of systems affected by path-dependence and lock-in
phenomena. Second, transport is not sustainable because it is locked in environmentally sub-optimal systems. Third,
structural changes in technologies and organisations, institutions, and values are needed to establish more
sustainable transport systems. We give an example of the use of an institutional/evolutionary approach to
sustainable transport policies in the transition from the system of mass motorisation to the new urban mobility system."
Jitka Andersson,
Reducing environmental impacts of freight transport sector: The case of the Czech Republic.
Lund University, Dep. of Technology and Society, (International Master’s Programme in Environmental Science),
Lund, January 2005, 48 p. [formato PDF, 2,77 MB].
"The transport system in the Czech Republic has gone through substantial changes since 1990, mostly due to political and economical changes in the country. During this period, the environmental performance of many sectors, such as industry and energy has improved; however it is not so in the case of freight transport. The demand for freight transport in the Czech Republic has been steadily increasing during the latest years and demand is expected to continue growing. Furthermore, the most polluting road transport sector has become overwhelmingly dominant. There are several reasons for this development, such as currant trends in production and logistics and slow adoption of the railway sector to competition from more flexible and reliable road sector. Moreover, the external costs of the road sector are significantly higher then external costs of the rail sector, which makes the road favored at the expense of rail.
The analysis of transport related air emissions has shown that the contribution of this sector to the total of air emissions is small compared to OECD average. The reason for this is the high emission intensity of energy and industry sectors. However, freight transport related emissions of carbon dioxide have been increasing fast during the studied period and so have emissions of nitrogen oxides. Furthermore, the situation concerning the exceeding of air pollution concentration limit values in urban areas in the CR is serious. This shows that the current trends in freight transport performance would lead to negative effects on human health and environmental degradation and there is urgent need for measures in order to reduce these effects.
For the reduction of environmental damage caused by road freight transport, there is a need for strong emission regulations, implementation of new technologies as well as solutions in order to reduce the demand for transport. Those measures are important in working towards sustainable transport, however, they are unlikely to divert the currant development in emission trends. In order to attain a sustainable freight transport sector it is necessary to increase the share of railways on the freight transport market. Measures aiming at improving efficiency and opening up the freight railway market to competition will make this sector more competitive in comparison to the road freight sector. However, because the forces driving the modal slant towards road transport are powerful, more efficient policy instruments internalizing the external costs of road transport need to be implemented."
Gerardo Marletto (Univ. di Sassari),
Crossing The Alps: Three Transport Policy Options. (Contributi di Ricerca CRENoS 2007/12).
Centro Ricerche Economiche Nord Sud CRENoS, Cagliari, gennaio 2008, 15 p. [formato PDF, 368 kB].
"In recent years crossing the Alps has become a central issue in transport policy. The constant
increase in global transport flow has contributed to bringing two distinct objectives to the centre
of attention: making transalpine transportation of goods easier and reducing the negative impact of
this on the alpine environment. The debates and disagreements on the subject are often bad-tempered,
and are evidence of the lack of communication between the interested parties. This is also due to the
existence of three distinct transport policy options: territiorial competition, sustainable development
and de-growth. The different positions taken by the various parties are more understandable when one is
aware of these options, and this awareness could assist the parties in making the necessary decisions,
which all those involved recognise are important."
Kenneth A. Small, Kurt Van Dender,
Long Run Trends in Transport Demand, Fuel Price Elasticities and Implications of the Oil Outlook for the Transport Policy.
(Discussion paper No. 2007-16). Joint Transport Research Centre, Paris, December 2007, p. 38 [formato PDF, 287 KB].
Marco Percoco,
Urban Transport Policies and the Environment: Evidence from Italy. (Nota di Lavoro 59.2007).
Fondazione Eni Enrico Mattei FEEM, Milano, May 2007, 34 p. [formato PDF, 248 KB].
"The paper reviews urban transport policies in Italian cities and their impact on the
concentration of NO2 and PM10. Using parametric and non-parametric techniques, it
finds no significant effect of the policy actions currently implemented. Further, it finds
evidence of a weak positive impact of plans adoption. These results are interpreted as
evidence of positive externalities among actions. Finally, by also discussing case
studies, the paper points out the absence of economic instruments and argues that
significant welfare gains would derive from their adoption."
Dallo studio risulta lo scarso successo ottenuto dalle politiche della mobilità nel ridurre l'inquinamento
da traffico nelle città italiane.
Anna Donati,
Azioni ed incoerenze del governo Prodi per la mobilità e le infrastrutture.
Relazione al seminario di formazione "Aria e mobilità", Milano, 29 settembre 2007, 23 slides [formato PDF, 1,40 MB].
The Eddington Transport Study. The case for action: Sir Rod Eddington's advice to government,
(Summary report), London, Department of Transport, December 2006, 64 p. [formato PDF, 2,04 MB].
Sintesi e conclusioni dello studio commissionato dal governo inglese a Sir Eddington sul rapporto tra i trasporti e il sistema economico inglese.
Lo studio propone l'applicazione generalizzata del road pricing al trasporto su strada per contrastare le evidenti tendenze
alla saturazione della rete stradale e autostradale. "Policy should get the prices right (especially
congestion pricing on the roads and environmental pricing across all modes) and make best use of existing networks."
E' disponibile anche il rapporto completo in 4 volumi con allegati,
The Eddington Transport Study
Roman Rudel,
Schweizer Politik zur Verkehrsverlagerung am Gotthard. Ein Zwischenbericht.
Luzern, 1.-3. Dezember 2005, Internationale Konferenz "Verkehr durch die Alpen - Monitraf", 12 slides [presentazione PDF, 288 kB].
In lingua tedesca. Una sintesi sugli effetti, i vantaggi e i limiti della tassa sul traffico pesante nel contesto della politica svizzera dei trasporti.
Versione ampliata della relazione tenuta a Napoli.
Roman Rudel,
La tassa sul traffico pesante e nuove infrastrutture ferroviarie in Svizzera. Una storia di successo?
Napoli, 24 settembre 2005, relazione al convegno ISFORT "Logistica Sostenibile", 13 slides [presentazione PDF, 151 kB].
In italiano. Una sintesi sugli effetti, i vantaggi e i limiti della tassa sul traffico pesante nel contesto della politica svizzera dei trasporti.
Gerardo Marletto, La globalizzazione e
l’attraversamento delle Alpi: opzioni alternative di politica dei trasporti.
Paper presentato all’8. riunione scientifica della SIET (Società Italiana Economisti dei Trasporti), Trieste,
29 giugno – 1 luglio 2006, 12 p. [formato PDF, 194 kB]. Marletto analizza le tre
opzioni presenti: quella dello sviluppo, che vuole intercettare i nuovi
traffici internazionali indotti dalla globalizzazione (es. Cina) e quindi vuole
costruire nuove grandi infrastrutture di trasporto (es. Lione-Torino), quella
della sostenibilità che vuole contrastare la crescita dei trasporti con il
trasferimento dalla strada alla rotaia e con l’internalizzazioe dei costi, e la
terza opzione, quella della decrescita, che vuole combattere la globalizzazione
e la crescita del trasporto ricorrendo ai circuiti economici regionali
(cosiddetta “filiera corta” ), riducendo i flussi di merci invece di aumentarli.
Gerardo Marletto, Lo spazio di una
politica della logistica: dal trasporto sostenibile alla riduzione dei
trasporti. Intervento al seminario
di CIPRA Italia e Pro Natura (Torino, 30 gennaio 2006) ”Più treni nel futuro delle
Alpi?”. 2006, 6 p. [formato Word, 60 kB]
Gerardo Marletto, Prime riflessioni
per un nuovo ciclo di governo dei trasporti. 2005. 4 p. [formato PDF, 82 kB].
Giuseppe Pinna, Note
sui temi della logistica in Italia, 17 marzo 2005, La Fabbrica del
Programma (Muovere persone e cose)
Gerardo Marletto, Una
politica industriale per un’altra mobilità, Istituto per il Lavoro (IpL),
marzo 2004, working paper [formato PDF, 146 kB].
Romeo Danielis, Edoardo Marcucci, Dalla
gomma alla ferrovia: la velocità non è tutto. 19.12.2005. Tratto dal sito http://www.lavoce.info
MOBILITA' COME SERVIZIO (MaaS, MOBILITY AS A SERVICE)
Iria Lopez-Carreiro, Andres Monzon and Elena Lopez (Transport Research Center (TRANSyT), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid),
Assessing the intention to uptake MaaS: the case of Randstad. Review.
European Transport Research Review, 16, 2 (2024), 21 p. [formato PDF, 1,5 MB]. Open Access.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) has recently gained popularity as an opportunity to encourage a more sustainable mobility model and improve urban liveability. Today, it is still uncertain if
travellers are willing to uptake MaaS and transform their habits. In the paper, we explore individuals' behavioural intention based on a survey comprising 418 respondents in the metropolitan area
of Randstad (The Netherlands). The application of a Structural Equation Model allows to uncover a series of explanatory (attitudinal and personality) factors relevant for MaaS acceptance. Then, a
cluster analysis determines four profiles of travellers in relation to their intention to embrace this new solution: 'Short-duration commuters', 'Active travellers', 'Traditional car-supporters',
and 'MaaS admirers'. Overall, we identify three main barriers for the potential adoption of MaaS: low willingness to combine different modes of transport, low affinity with technology, and low
reliability on the new mobility services. We also recognise that low environmental concerns seem to frustrate individuals' innovativeness."
Hyunhong Choi, Stephen Youngjun Park, HyungBin Moon,
The shared mobility services ban in South Korea: Consumer preferences and social opportunity cost.
Travel Behaviour and Society 28 (2022) 214-226 (13 p.) [formato PDF, 1,7 MB]. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2022.04.006
"With the advancement of information and communication technologies and the emergence of sharing economy, various shared mobility services have been introduced in many countries and some are
achieving rapid growth. However, in South Korea, shared mobility services that were once introduced are now banned by laws and regulations following extreme opposition from taxi drivers and heated
social conflict. This study analyzed consumer preferences for key technological and non-technological attributes that consists vehicle-based mobility services to investigate the social cost related
to the ban. To be specific, this study evaluated the social opportunity cost of the ban on shared mobility services in South Korea and investigated the impact of potential options that may improve
existing mobility services and minimize costs for various demographic groups. The results show that carpooling and professional ride-hailing services could assume significant amount of taxis' current
market share if they were fully available. This implies that significant social opportunity cost may be incurred from the ban as consumers are unable to use the services they want. In particular,
females tended to have a higher cost than males, and the cost appeared to increase by age. The choice probability for banned mobility services (social opportunity cost) of the female older adult
is the highest (73.8%) among consumer groups. Moreover, this study suggests that providing incentives to induce taxis' electrification and strictly regulating and managing taxi drivers' service
quality could be a useful strategy for policymakers to minimize the social costs of the ban on shared mobility services."
Clare Brown, Michael Hardman, Nick Davies and Richard Armitage,
Mobility as a Service: Defining a Transport Utopia.
Future Transp. 2022, 2(1), 300-309 (10 p.) [formato PDF, 496 kB]. Open Access.
"Having been widely acknowledged as enabling access to education, employment, leisure and social activities, transport choices are also the cause of many challenges cities face. Recognising
that change is needed, planners and policymakers are considering alternative methods of planning and delivering transport. Mobility as a Service (or MaaS) is one such idea that has gained traction
with academics and professionals alike. Hailed as the answer to integrating complex transport systems, MaaS has yet to be implemented at scale in urban transport systems due in part to the lack of
an agreed conceptual definition, the top-down approach to implementing what is meant to be a more personalised method of accessing transport, and the lack of local promoters (in comparison to global
corporations and lobbyists). This article reflects on the current barriers to defining MaaS, considers how a novel public engagement approach could be used to create local definitions that support
citizen engagement, and suggests a route forward for future research."
Toke Haunstrup Christensen, Freja Friis, Marie Vang Nielsen,
Car sharing schemes and MaaS: A study of shifting mobility practices from ownership to access.
Proceedings from the Annual Transport Conference at Aalborg University, Vol. 28, No. 1 (2021), 5 p. [formato PDF, 636 kB].
"Transport levels and private car use continue to increase worldwide representing complex challenges to climate change mitigation and the liveability of cities. In recent years, interest
has arisen in the concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) as one possible path towards sustainable mobility futures. MaaS builds on the idea of a shift from private car ownership to a seamless
and integrated system providing access to multimodal mobility options including public transport and shared mobility services like car and bike sharing. Currently, only few examples of MaaS
schemes exist and knowledge of user experiences is limited.
The aim of this paper is to contribute to a better understanding of how shared mobilities, like in MaaS, fit with the everyday life of citizens. Methodologically, the paper draws on insights
from qualitative interviews with families using a car sharing scheme in Copenhagen. The interviews are informed by a practice theoretical approach to study the potential of integrating car
sharing within the complex of social practices from which the everyday life consist. To inform the discussion of our empirical results, and their implications for future MaaS designs, we
base our study on a literature review of existing studies of user experiences with MaaS and an analysis of user practice representations in existing MaaS trials.
Our findings indicate three ways forward to promote MaaS as an alternative to private cars. First, future MaaS designs should aim to acknowledge the importance of the interconnections
between mobility and other everyday practices. Second, the shift from ownership to access provides several positive benefits like modal flexibility and a new sense of freedom, which the
future MaaS design should focus strategically on in order to challenge the ideals around individual ownership. Third, strategic interventions that privilege sustainable mobility solutions
through effective initiatives such as road-pricing and physical limitations in private car traffic and parking are needed."
Xiaoyun Zhao, Claudia Andruetto, Bhavana Vaddadi, Anna Pernestål (KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm),
Potential values of maas impacts in future scenarios.
Journal of Urban Mobility 1 (2021) 100005 (11 p.) [formato PDF, 1,5 MB]. Open Access.
"
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is considered a strategy that can provide potential solutions for a sustainable transport system. The current literature claims that MaaS can deliver net positive
impacts for the transport system. However, whether these impacts are marginal or significant is unclear, as estimations typically are based on a few pilot tests. The lack of understanding of
these impacts could create barriers for decision-making on policy and regulation in adopting MaaS strategy. The paper proposes a feasible evaluation to explore how and to what extent MaaS
leads to, for example, reduced emissions, reduced fossil energy consumption, reduced car ownership and vehicle kilometres travelled on a large scale. The aim of this paper is to provide
potential values of MaaS impacts based on analysis of future scenarios. The potential values of MaaS impacts can be used to support decision-making within both public organisations and
among service developers for MaaS implementation and development."
Milo N. Mladenović, Noora Haavisto,
Interpretative flexibility and conflicts in the emergence of Mobility as a Service: Finnish public sector actor perspectives.
Case Studies on Transport Policy 9 (2021) 851-859 (9 p.) [formato PDF, 535 kB]. Open Access.
"Mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) is still largely under development, with high uncertainties of its societal implications. This development is happening across sectoral, multi-layered, and
multi-actor networks. Previous case studies on understanding networked governance of MaaS inform us that there is a range of challenges in the current institutional arrangements, lack of shared
MaaS vision, divergent interests, and even conflicts over roles and responsibilities. These case studies have used analytical frameworks based on socio-technical transitions theory, complemented
with theories from institutional and business studies. This study focuses on Finland, aiming to provide additional insights about perspectives of non-commercial actors. In particular, we provide
a more sophisticated understanding of underlying reasons for conflict and lack of cooperation concerning an understanding of MaaS, its implications, and associated governance actions. The applied
analytical framework is building upon concepts from the philosophy and sociology of emerging technology, as well as the contemporary political theory of Chantal Mouffe. Interview findings from
seventeen non-commercial organisations have been classified into five categories, namely definitions, operational and business aspects, user perspectives, systemic effects, and governance.
Discussion of these interview findings focuses on the interpretative flexibility of MaaS and governance processes in the context of inherent conflict in the value-laden mobility domain. The
paper concludes with outlining directions for further synthesis in developing analytical frameworks for studies of governance and responsible innovation in the domain of emerging mobility
technologies."
Joel Wolff and Esko Hakanen (Aalto University),
Managing the Disruption of Mobility Services: How to align the value propositions of key ecosystem players.
Technology Innovation Management Review, 2021, 11(4): 13-25 (13 p.) [formato PDF, 1,8 MB]. Open Access.
"Many industries nowadays are facing drastic changes that enable and require new forms of interdependencies that facilitate complex ecosystems of interconnected actors. This paper investigates
such a transformation facing the mobility sector, as user-centric bundles of mobility services are being introduced and compiled, by referring to the Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) concept. In the
process, new value propositions arise that call for aligning the established players with new entrants. The implementation of MaaS is still in its infancy, and many open questions remain about how
local authorities should support its emergence. One key challenge relates to decomposing the focal offering of the MaaS ecosystem into complementary value propositions for key players in the industry.
This paper presents the results of a constructive design research project, building on interviews with a leading MaaS provider, as well as stakeholders representing national and local authorities
in four European cities. The findings emphasize the need to balance a shared desire to disrupt conventional ways of offering mobility services against reluctance to overturn the industry's public
and private incumbents. The co-design framework that results serves to summarize five steps that enable MaaS by guiding strategic interaction between local authorities and various players in the
mobility ecosystem. In addition, the article builds on ecosystem research insights and emphasizes the need to align value propositions among multiple stakeholders. The study suggests that the
mobility sector provides a prominent empirical context for future ecosystem research."
Yves Crozet, Jean Coldefy,
Mobility as a Service (MaaS): a digital roadmap for public transport authorities. [Research Report].
CERRE (Centre on Regulation in Europe), Brussels, January 2021, pp. 62 [formato PDF, 2,8 MB].
"The mobility of people in urban areas is important, in the context
of both the transition to climate neutrality and the impact of the digital revolution. As the title
indicates, the themes of decarbonisation and digitalisation are also at the heart of this report. It
follows on from the report that CERRE published in September 2019 on shared mobility and MaaS.
While providing a perspective on the current potential of new mobility services, the report invited
public transport authorities (PTAs) to show greater ambition in the digital field and its applications.
This new report will deepen these recommendations with concrete content. It will present what could
be the digital roadmap of the organising mobility authorities (OMAs), whose tasks exceed solely
organising the traditional modes of public transport such as buses, tramways, metros, and trains."
Elena Alyavina, Alexandros Nikitas, Eric Tchouamou Njoya (University of Huddersfield),
Mobility as a service and sustainable travel behaviour: A thematic analysis study.
Transportation Research Part F 73 (2020) 362-381 (20 p.)[format o PDF, 2 MB]. Open Access.
"Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a novel brand of transport that promises to replace private cars with multimodal personalised mobility packages enabled by a digital platform capable of
integrating travel planning, booking and ticketing, and real-time information services. It is an intervention that through its digitisation, connectivity, information and sharing merits intends
to inspire and support the transition to a more sustainable mobility paradigm. Recent research suggests, however, that the potential uptake of MaaS might not be overwhelming; current car drivers
could face considerable difficulties in bypassing their personal car for it and, more worryingly, future MaaS users may substitute not only personal car trips but also public transport journeys
with car-sharing and ride-sharing services. This means that MaaS might not be able to create travel behaviour change, and even if it does, the changes may not be always towards the right direction.
Through conducting 40 semi-structured interviews in three different UK cities, namely London, Birmingham and Huddersfield, and employing a robust Thematic Analysis approach, this study explores
the factors underpinning the uptake and potential success of MaaS as a sustainable travel mechanism. The challenges and opportunities reflecting and affecting potential for responsible MaaS usage
refer to five core themes Car Dependence; Trust; Human Element Externalities; Value; and Cost, each of them with distinctive and diverse dimensions. Policy-makers and mobility providers should
realise that MaaS success relies on changing people's attitudes to private cars (something very challenging) and thus they should incentivise responsible MaaS use, promote public transport as
its backbone, use public engagement exercises and trials to expose people to the concept and somewhat demonise private car ownership and car use."
Melinda Matyas (University College London),
Opportunities and barriers to multimodal cities: lessons learned from in-depth interviews about attitudes towards mobility as a service.
Transp. Res. Rev. 12, 7 (2020) (11 p.) [formato PDF, 563 kB]. Open Access.
"With the emergence of the Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept, it is important to understand whether it has the potential to support behaviour change and the shift away from private
vehicle ownership and use. This paper aims to identify potential ways that MaaS (specifically MaaS plans) could help encourage behavioural change; and understand the barriers to using alternative
transport modes. In-depth interviews and qualitative analysis are applied to the case study of London. The results indicate that individuals segment the transport modes offered via MaaS into
three categories: essential, considered and excluded. Soft measures should target each individuals' consideration set as this is where the most impact can be made regarding behaviour change.
Respondents also highlighted factors that make them apprehensive towards certain modes, such as safety, service characteristics and administration. Interventions that focus on the socio-demographic
groups that are most affected could help make these modes more appealing."
Xiao Qin and Wei Wang (Research Institute of Highway Ministry of Transport),
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS): Comparative analysis of country-specific offerings between Germany and China.
E3S Web of Conferences 145, 02016 (2020), 9 p. [formato PDF, 1,5 MB]. Open Access.
"This study focuses on mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) and services. The country-specific differences, which relate to mobility behaviour and supply, as well as the importance of MaaS in Germany
and China, are summarised and illustrated by: that the development of MaaS by analysing the current state of mobility offers in Germany and China must be closely compared. With the help of
service-dominant logic, self-determination theories and cultural dimensions theory, customer wishes and mobility behaviour are taken into account and discussed in the development of the MaaS, so
that one can explore how MaaS responds accordingly and how such offers change. Today's services on the market are presented and summarised, they are public transport, biking, car, ride-sharing,
etc. Furthermore, the importance is to be analysed by examining the influence and synergy of the MaaS on the micro, meso and macro levels. The reasons for country-specific differences and own
development problems can then be discussed. Finally, the trend towards future development is based on the previous analysis and some recommendations are to be offered for the optimisation of the
MaaS offers and their implementation."
Koichi Sakai,
MaaS trends and policy-level initiatives in the EU.
IATSS Research (2019) (in press), 9 p. [formato PDF, 617 kB]. Open Access.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2019.11.001
"The concept of mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) was conceived in Finland, and it is characteristically user-oriented. Interest in MaaS has quickly spread across Europe along with the rapid
advances in information and communications technology and the internet of things in recent years, as the realization of MaaS is consistent with the policy directions of the EU member states
promoting the use of public transport.
This paper describes the MaaS concept in EU, the birth of the concept in Finland and its background, and EU-wide policy level initiatives and their characteristics."
Keith Bevis, Oycan Sozcu, Russell Fenner,
Mobility as a Service: Early implementations in the UK.
EEVConvention: Policies and Best Practice, Oslo Congress Center, Oslo, Norway, 25 Sep 2018, 15 p., [formato PDF, 648 kB].
"Mobility as a Service, MaaS, has been developing at a pace across Europe. While engaged in an InnovateUK project, MotionHub, to implement a MaaS scheme in a municipality in the South East
England, the authors began to ask two fundamental questions; what is MaaS and to what extent is it materialising in the UK. From the experience of MotionHub, it is clear that UK implementations
would be slow.
Combining a number of web-based services and amalgamating their financial transactions is relatively straightforward. However, introducing the potential for public transport ticketing as well
raises additional security, scale and financial constraints. Motion Hub has engaged with major players and regulators across the public transport industry. In its latter stages project was rolled
out to the public. The various individual services became available from the single website via one membership application and the use of a single card.
Other MaaS styled initiatives have been reviewed and it appears that there are just five other MaaS projects being trialled concurrently with MotionHub that provide journey planning and single
point ticket purchase for multimodal journeys. A number of other initiatives provide just some aspects of MaaS.
The project has also reviewed customer perceptions, suitability of various types of town to MaaS initiatives and the varying enthusiasm amongst local government officials. From these reviews it
is clear that the MaaS uptake will be slow.
However, reflecting on the theoretical discussions about Maas, there appears to be a significant gap between theory and practice In particular of the claimed benefits of de-congestion and
reduced pollution seem to be some way off in the future. This is not a criticism of MotionHub and the other implementations, some of which are substantial investments. It is acknowledgement
that the goal of seamless adaptive travel is an extremely ambitious one."
Anne Durand, Lucas Harms, Sascha Hoogendoorn-Lanser, Toon Zijlstra,
Mobility-as-a-Service and changes in travel preferences and travel behaviour: a literature review.
KiM Netherlands Institute for Transport Policy Analysis, The Hague, September 2018, 57 p. [formato PDF, 978 kB].
"Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), a transport concept integrating various mobility services into one single digital platform, elicits high expectations as a means of providing customised
door-to-door transport solutions. To date, the frequent claims about the positive contributions MaaS will make towards achieving sustainability goals rely on a scattering of limited yet insightful
research findings. Many research questions remain unanswered, however. Are people willing to accept MaaS as a new transport service (on a daily basis)? The KiM Netherlands Institute for Transport
Policy Analysis looked for answers by means of an extensive research program."
Anna Kramers, Tina Ringenson, Liridona Sopjani and Peter Arnfalk,
AaaS and MaaS for reduced environmental and climate impact of transport. Creating a framework to identify promising digital service innovations
for reduced demand and optimized use of transport resources.
EPiC Series in Computing, Volume 30, 2018, p. 1-16 (16 p.) [formato PDF, 504 kB].
[Proceedings of the] ICT4S2018, 5th International Conference on Information and Communication Technology for Sustainability.
"In this paper, a set of indicators is presented that aim to identify promising service innovations for Accessibility as a Service (AaaS) and Mobility as a Service (MaaS); services
that potentially can reduce the demand for transport and optimize use of transport infrastructure and vehicles in urban regions. The proposed indicators characterize service innovations
from three different perspectives: 1) Is the service innovation environmentally sustainable? Does it reduce negative impacts on the environment (reduce carbon emissions, use of
space), 2) Is it rewardable? Is value created for an organization? Does it make use of new sustainable business models, and 3) How widely is the service spread? How many users are
there, what is the geographic distribution and what level of societal transition has occurred? The developed indicators are meant to guide policy makers, decision makers, business
developers and academia in the prioritizations that need to be made when allocating land and resources to the most promising and powerful innovations, moving towards more environmentally
friendly mobility and accessibility. The next step will be to test the indicators to identify and categorize existing and emerging new services, ideas, pilots and prototypes. The
results of this second step will be presented in our next article."
Yanying Li, Tom Voege,
Mobility as a Service (MaaS): Challenges of Implementation and Policy Required,
Journal of Transportation Technologies, 2017, 7, 95-106 (12 p.) [formato PDF, 827 kB].
"Mobility as a service (MaaS) is a relatively new concept, which holds the
promise for a paradigm shift in the provision of urban mobility. The concept of MaaS is to use a single app to access and pay for various transport modes
within a city or beyond; and the app will give options to allow a traveller to select the most suitable transport mode. The concept of MaaS is enabled by
the current mass uptake of smartphones and social media as well ubiquitous internet connection. By studying current applications of MaaS in Europe and
US conditions of operation of MaaS have been summarised. Based on the necessary conditions, a checklist has been developed for potential developers
of MaaS to assess if they can implement MaaS in a city. This paper also discusses challenges of implementation of MaaS and their potential impacts on
urban mobility and societal changes".
MOBILITA' SOSTENIBILE (POLITICHE)
Lisa Ruhrort
Can a rapid mobility transition appear both desirable and achievable? Reflections on the role of competing narratives for socio-technical change and suggestions for a research agenda.
Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research, 2022 (18 p.) [formato PDF, 616 kB]. Open Access.
"As research on socio-technical transitions has repeatedly shown, positive or negative narratives can play a key role in galvanizing public support for or resistance against socio-technical
transitions. In the mobility sector, many countries have recently seen some indications of beginning socio-technical change dynamics. In the case of Germany, key practices of a low-carbon transport
system - such as cycling, substitution of travel through home office or 'shared mobility services' - are moving from niches to mainstream, while grassroots initiatives are successfully demanding
improvements for cycling and walking. In this dynamic situation competing narratives of change begin to emerge, which claim to define what a transition towards 'sustainable' mobility should look
like and how it could be accomplished. Against the backdrop of these recent discursive shifts the article highlights three key conflictual dimensions, along which competing narratives of a mobility
transition in Germany, but also in other European countries, are likely going to diverge. The article suggests that research into mobility transitions should focus on the intensifying discursive
struggles, in which different social groups with highly differing power will attempt to shape the broader socio-technical vision of a 'sustainable' mobility future."
Lamia Abdelfattah, Diego Deponte, Giovanna Fossa,
The 15-minute city as a hybrid model for Milan.
Tema. Journal of Land Use, Mobility and Environment 2022, 71-86 (16 p.) [formato PDF, 2,9 MB]. Open Access.
"With a special focus on Milan, we explore the interpretation of the 15-minute city as a hybrid model, where soft mobility is integrated in a holistic urbanism approach. Contemporary
urban challenges, synthetized in the 15-minute city model, look for a sustainable "proximity mix": mix of uses (overcoming rigid zoning and building codes), mix of inhabitants and users, mix
of time schedules and multi-purpose open space. The proposed hybrid approach considers the living-working urban experience as a whole: it proposes to consider, as a starting point for measuring
the timeframe of 15 minutes, not only homes but workplaces as well. It welcomes innovative working facilities among those to be considered as essential services reachable within the 15-minute
walking timeframe and it integrates open spaces within urban infrastructures by mixing the neighborhood "eco-system" - both of environment and mobility - and designing them around the central
role of walking."
Giulia Isetti, Valeria Ferraretto, Agnieszka Elzbieta Stawinoga, Mirjam Gruber, Nives DellaValle,
Is caring about the environment enough for sustainable mobility? An exploratory case study from South Tyrol (Italy).
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 6 (2020) 100148 (10 p.)[formato PDF, 428 kB]. Open Access.
"Sustainable mobility has a positive impact on quality of life, in both urban and rural contexts. Policies aimed at promoting greener travel behaviors - at European, as well as at state
and regional level - require a deep knowledge of differing mobility cultures across European regions. In order to better understand the relationship between the (stated) propensity towards
sustainability, reported mobility patterns and users' lifestyles in rural areas, an exploratory study was conducted in South Tyrol, a rural region in Northern Italy that strives to become a
model region for sustainable alpine mobility by 2030. More specifically, an online survey on sustainable mobility was administered to the inhabitants, exploring motivations, preferred incentives
and drivers that may lead towards the adoption of sustainable mobility solutions (with a focus on e-mobility). By analyzing how pro-environmental self-identity interacts with consumers'
heterogeneity, results show that heterogeneity exists in the individual pro-environmental identity measure. Based also on evidence from the literature that extrinsic rewards might negatively
impact intrinsic motivations to engage in a certain behavior, this study warns policy-makers of potential unintended consequences of current policy tools used to incentivize the adoption of
sustainable means of transport, such as the provision of monetary incentives for electric vehicles."
Donati Anna, Petracchini Francesco, Gasparini Carlotta, Tomassetti Laura, Cozza Valentina, Scarpinella Maria Stella (a cura di),
3. Rapporto MobilitAria 2020. Politiche di mobilità e qualità dell'aria nelle città italiane 2020. Analisi e proposte al tempo del Covid-19.
Kyoto Club, Istituto sull'Inquinamento Atmosferico del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR-IIA), maggio 2020, 180 p. [formato PDF, 99,7 MB].
"Nel 2019 migliora leggermente la qualità dell'aria nelle città rispetto all'anno precedente, tuttavia permangono valori critici che non sono sufficienti a garantire il rispetto dei limiti
normativi in vigore. Nel periodo di lockdown invece, complice il blocco del traffico, si registra un netto calo dell'inquinamento soprattutto per il crollo del biossido di azoto (NO2). Nel frattempo,
le città provano ad attrezzarsi per essere sempre più sostenibili, mentre il Dl Rilancio appena licenziato dal Governo si dimostra timido e insufficente a contrastare la crescita della congestione
e del traffico che in modo progressivo torneranno ad invadere le nostre città dopo la ripartenza: ora più che mai è necessario accelerare la giusta transizione verso la mobilità sostenibile.
A questo scopo Kyoto Club e CNR-IIA avanzano nel III Rapporto proposte concrete per la fase2, per contrastare la crescita del traffico veicolare: smart working, risparmio di traffico, piano degli
orari della città, sostegno alle alternative in bicicletta, a piedi, sharing mobility, micromobilità, veicoli elettrici e trasporto collettivo.
Sono questi i principali temi del terzo Rapporto "MobilitAria 2020" che analizza i dati della mobilità e della qualità dell'aria nelle 14 città metropolitane nel 2019 e nei primi 4 mesi del 2020, in
piena emergenza Covid-19.
Il periodo di lockdown ha avuto effetti considerevoli sugli spostamenti dei cittadini: di conseguenza il livello di emissioni e di inquinamento dovuti al settore trasporti hanno segnato, nei mesi
di marzo e aprile 2020, una battuta d'arresto a Roma, Milano, Torino e Napoli, le quattro città analizzate in questa parte dello studio. A registrare un calo netto è stato sopratutto il biossido
di azoto (NO2).
Il crollo principale di NO2 è avvenuto a Roma, dove le concentrazioni medie sono inferiori alle annualità precedenti (2016-2019) rispettivamente del -59% per il mese di Marzo e del -71% per il mese
di Aprile.
A Torino invece il calo è del -43% per il mese di Marzo e -51% per il mese di Aprile, a Milano si è avuta una riduzione del -29% e -43% rispetto alla media dello stesso periodo 2016-2019, mentre
Napoli registra rispettivamente una riduzione del -33% e -57%.
L'analisi condotta sulla qualità dell'aria per l'annualità 2019 ha mostrato la persistenza per alcune città italiane di valori di concentrazioni elevati che non sono sufficienti a garantire il
rispetto dei limiti normativi in vigore. occorre pertanto maggiore impegno da parte delle Amministrazioni locali per ridurre le concentrazioni e i superamenti al valore limite. È stato inoltre
analizzato nel periodo del lockdown nazionale a seguito dell'emergenza epidemiologica da COVID-19 l'effetto sulla qualità dell'aria. I due mesi di blocco hanno permesso di comprendere l'importante
impatto del traffico veicolare, in particolare quello privato, oltre che sulle emissioni di alcuni inquinanti anche sulle concentrazioni rilevate dalle centraline; tale evidenza risulta molto marcata,
in accordo con quanto emerso dalle analisi delle stesse Agenzie per gli inquinanti legati direttamente al traffico, quale il biossido di azoto e in modo minore ma comunque allo stesso modo evidente
anche per il particolato atmosferico."
Iván López, Jordi Ortega and Mercedes Pardo,
Mobility Infrastructures in Cities and Climate Change: An Analysis Through the Superblocks in Barcelona.
Atmosphere 2020, 11, 410 (10 p.) [formato PDF, 5,9 MB]. Open Access.
"Cities are key actors in the fight against climate change since they are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions while at the same time they experience the negative impact of this
phenomenon. Mitigating and adapting to climate change requires fundamental changes in urbanism and city automobile traffic. Superblocks, a grid of blocks and basic roads forming a polygon,
approximately 400 by 400 m, are one of the instruments for such changes. These type of city Superblocks represent a new model of mobility that restructures the typical urban road network,
thereby substantially reducing automobile traffic, and accordingly GHG emissions, while increasing green space in the city and improving the health and quality of life of its inhabitants.
Furthermore, the Superblocks do not require investment in hard infrastructures, nor do they involve demolishing buildings or undertaking massive development; they are in fact very low-tech
urbanism. The city of Barcelona has been implementing Superblocks as one of the measures to combat climate change with very positive results. The paper analyzes the concept of the Superblock
and its relation with climate change in cities. Along these lines, it analyzes the pioneer experience of Barcelona in the development and implementation of the Superblocks, as a radical plan
aimed at taking back the streets from cars. The role of political power and institutional leadership has been key in societal acceptance and the achievement of tangible results. But there are
also obstacles and drawbacks in the development of these types of Superblocks, such as the necessity to redesign the collective transport network so that car traffic can truly be reduced in
cities, the possible negative influence on traffic going in and out of the city, the lack of visible advantages if they are not implemented in the entire city, the risk of gentrification in
the areas with Superblocks, public opposition, and opposition from certain sectors of the business community."
Mark J. Nieuwenhuijsen,
Urban and transport planning pathways to carbon neutral, liveable and healthy cities; A review of the current evidence.
Environment International 2020, in press (10 p.) [formato PDF, 1,7 MB]. Open Access.
"Introduction: Half the world population lives in cities and this is likely to increase to 70% over the next 20 years.
Suboptimal urban and transport planning has led to e.g. high levels of air pollution and noise, heat island effects
and lack of green space and physical activity and thereby an increase in morbidity and premature mortality. How
can better urban and transport planning improve public health?
Methods: A narrative meta-review around a number of cutting edge and visionary studies and practices on how
to improve public health through better urban and transport planning reported in the literature and from
meetings over the past few years.
Results: We describe the latest quantitative evidence of how cities can become healthier through better urban
and transport planning. It focuses and provides evidence for important interventions, policies and actions that
can improve public health, including the need for land use changes, reduce car dependency and move towards
public and active transportation, greening of cities, visioning, citizen involvement, collaboration, leadership and
investment and systemic approaches. Health impact assessment studies have recently provided new powerful
quantitative evidence on how to make cities healthier and will be used as examples. At the same time these
measures make also our cities more sustainable (i.e. carbon neutral) and liveable creating multiple benefits.
Conclusion: Better urban and transport planning can lead to carbon neutral, more liveable and healthier cities,
particularly through land use changes, a move from private motorised transportation to public and active
transportation and greening of cities."
Erling Holden, David Banister, Stefan Gössling, Geoffrey Gilpin, Kristin Linnerud,
Grand Narratives for sustainable mobility: A conceptual review.
Energy Research & Social Science, 65 (2020) 101454, 10 p. [formato PDF, 527 kB]. Open Access.
"The concept of sustainable mobility has had a relatively short life, first being used about 30 years ago. In that time, some progress has been made, but transport is still not contributing
enough to the internationally set reduction targets for carbon emissions. This paper provides a conceptual review that presents nine narratives addressing elements of sustainable mobility, each of
which has been derived from a review of the agents and strategies taken over the last 30 years. From these narratives, we develop three Grand Narratives that bring together the key elements identified
from the wider set of narratives-low mobility societies, collective transport 2.0, and electromobility. We then assess each of the three Grand Narratives in terms of its feasibility, acceptability,
centrality, and compatibility. We conclude that each of the Grand Narratives provides a necessary but insufficient condition for achieving sustainable mobility. Thus, although each one has the
potential to make significant contribution to sustainable mobility, it is only through the strong and immediate application of all three that the goal of sustainable mobility can be achieved."
Susan Shaheen, Adam Cohen, Michael Randolph, Emily Farrar, Richard Davis, Aqshems Nichols,
Shared Mobility Policy Playbook.
Transportation Sustainability Research Center (TSRC), University of California, Berkeley, December 2019, 224 p. [formato PDF, 8 MB].
"This Shared Mobility Policy Playbook provides an introduction and definitions of shared
mobility services, mode-specific resources for agencies looking to develop policies in their
community, and policy-focused tools demonstrating case studies and best practices for shared mobility".
Erling Holden, Geoffrey Gilpin and David Banister,
Sustainable Mobility at Thirty.
Sustainability 2019, 11(7), 1965 (14 p.) [formato PDF, 647 kB]. Open Access.
"It is now almost three decades since the concept of 'sustainable mobility' first appeared in the 1992 EU Green Paper on the Impact of Transport on the Environment. This paper reviews
the literature and reflects on how societies' understanding and interpretation of the concept of sustainable mobility has evolved. We track this evolution over six dimensions: research and policy,
transport impacts and categories, scientific disciplines, methodological approach, and research questions. From this review we assert that the mainstream understanding and interpretation of
sustainable mobility can be grouped into four generations of studies. The first generation of studies (1992-1993) were techno-centric and focused on how to limit transport's negative
environmental impacts by improving then-existing technology. The second, third and fourth generations of studies (1993-2000, 2000-2010 and 2010-2018 respectively) increasingly acknowledge the
limitations of preceding efforts to achieve sustainable mobility, and open for a more diverse set of alternatives. These studies have gradually become more interdisciplinary in nature-reflecting
the inter-relatedness of mobility with all other aspects of society. We conclude that despite the ensuing elevation of mobility into the holistic picture society, we still have not achieved a
sustainable mobility system. Furthermore, what is much needed now, more than ever, is a bold set of new narratives."
Cercle des Transports,
Transports et dette publique. Des membres du Cercle des Transports alertent sur la dérive des déficits publics résultant des transports.
Paris, Avril 2012, 71 p. [formato PDF, 2,61 MB].
"Les membres du Cercle des Transports, réunissant des experts et des professionnels du secteur, ont publié fin avril un rapport sous la forme d'une " alerte sur la dérive des déficits publics résultant des transports ". Une commission de travail a été créée afin " d'analyser les différentes perspectives d'évolution du secteur au plan économique et budgétaire, et les éventuelles conséquences sur la dérive des déficits publics, à l'horizon 2030 ". Les auteurs explorent ainsi deux scénarios extrêmes, faisant apparaître que si rien est fait dans les vingt prochaines années, " 130 milliards d'euros supplémentaires alourdiraient le montant de la dette publique ", alors qu'un " scénario de désendettement conduirait à […] 110 milliards d'allégements budgétaires ". L'objectif de cette étude est clairement d'alerter les décideurs publics en cette période électorale. Les auteurs présentent un large éventail de choix politiques possibles pour limiter l'impact du secteur des transports sur l'endettement public de la France, tout en maintenant des services de qualité."
"DISACCOPPIAMENTO" (DECOUPLING) DELLO SVILUPPO DEI TRASPORTI DALLO SVILUPPO ECONOMICO
Jérôme Verny (INRETS),
The importance of decoupling between freight transport and economic growth.
European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 7 (2007) 113-128 [formato PDF, 579 kB].
"The aim of this research is to improve the sustainable mobility reflexion from current behaviour of freight mobility and their determinants."
European
Environmental Agency, Transport
and environment: facing a dilemma. TERM 2005: indicators tracking transport and
environment in the European Union. EEA Report 3/2006,
Copenhagen, 2006, 52 p. [formato PDF, 3,73 MB]. Le tendenze più recenti del trasporto nell’UE: non c’è disaccoppiamento
tra crescita economica e crescita dei trasporti, anzi, continua l’aumento del
trasporto di persone e merci su strada, e aumenta ancora l’emissione di CO2.
Hedwig Verron [et al.], Determining
factors in traffic growth. Developments,
causes and possible future directions. Texte 32/05. Dessau,
Umweltbundesamt, December 2005, 64 p. [formato PDF, 586 kB]. Analisi delle
cause della produzione di traffico (persone e merci), il traffico indotto, la
mobilità del tempo libero. Esiste anche una versione in lingua tedesca: Determinanten
der Verkehrsentstehung, Texte 26/05.
SPRITE (Separating
the Intensity of Transport from Economic Growth), progetto
europeoFinal Publishable. Leeds, 2005, 42 p. [file Word, 612 KB]
M.R. Tight, P. Delle Site and O. Meyer-Ruhle,
Decoupling Transport from Economic
Growth: Towards Transport Sustainability in Europe. European Journal of
Transport and Infrastructure Research, 4 (2004) pp. 381-404 [file PDF, 112 KB]
Julien Brunel,Freight transport and economic
growth: an empirical explanation of the coupling in the EU using panel data. Lyon, 2005, 19 p.
[file PDF, 164 KB]
Richard Gilbert and Kathleen Nadeau,Decoupling
economic growth and transport demand: a requirement for sustainability. TRB Economic development Conference,
Portland, Oregon, May 5-7, 2002, 11 p. [formato PDF,
220 KB]. (differenze tra USA ed Europa per quanto riguarda il “decoupling”).
Mario Contaldi, Roberta Pignatelli, La
mobilità in Italia: indicatori su trasporti e ambiente. Dati di sintesi -
anno 2005. APAT, Roma, novembre 2005, 59 p. [file PDF, 988 kB]
Duccio Bianchi, La
resistenza italiana alle politiche per la riduzione delle emissioni
climalteranti e il declino dell’efficienza energetica nazionale. Atti del
convegno “Clima che cambia” (Legambiente Lombardia), aprile 2004, 12 p. [formato PDF, 129 kB].
FERROVIE VELOCI O ALTA VELOCITA' ? (il trasporto di persone a media distanza e le implicazioni ambientali ed economiche delle strategie ferroviarie)
David Banister (University of Oxford),
Policy on Sustainable Transport in England: The case of High Speed 2.
European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research (EJTIR), 18(3), 2018, pp.262-275 (14 p.) [formato PDF, 218 kB].
"T he achievement of sustainable transport is often a clearly stated objective of government
policy, but in England there is no National Sustainable Transport Strategy (NSTS). This paper
outlines the nature of sustainable transport arguing for a strategic approach that takes account of
the means to reduce travel through substitution and shorter trips, as well as making best use of
all modes and reducing reliance on carbon-based energy sources. It reviews the recent austerity
phase of UK transport policy (2010-2015) where revenue support has been cut, but capital
expenditure has increased, and it comments on the difficulties of making decisions on large scale
transport infrastructure projects in the absence of a NSTS. The recent policy statements and
initiatives on transport and sustainability are covered, looking backwards and forwards. It then
takes the case of High Speed 2 (HS2) and identifies five main narratives in the debates over the
arguments in support of this huge investment. It seems that sustainable transport has not been a
central part of that debate, and there is a need to reframe the discussion on HS2, as part of a
NSTS."
Silvia Maffii, Riccardo Parolin, Marco Ponti,
L'"errore strategico" nelle valutazioni italiane. Le maggiori distorsioni finalizzate a dimostrare la fattibilità economico-finanziaria
di infrastrutture di trasporto non fattibili. Paper, convegno Sipotra "La valutazione economica delle infrastrutture di trasporto tra errori passati e prospettive future", Milano, 6 giugno 2014, 10 p. [formato PDF, 642 kB].
"Le note che seguono si riferiscono ad alcuni fatti molto concreti e dimostrabili: il primo e più evidente è la sistematica assenza di valutazioni negative nelle analisi rese note al pubblico; il secondo è la scarsità di tali analisi; il terzo è l’assoluta mancanza di “terzietà”, caratteristica indispensabile per dare un minimo di credibilità alle analisi stesse. Queste sono sempre eseguite da portatori di interessi favorevoli della fattibilità dell’opera analizzata. Il quarto è l’assoluta assenza di analisi comparative, e tale assenza comporta che, anche se tutte le analisi avessero davvero dato risultati positivi, sia impossibile stabilire una qualche priorità, cioè escluderne alcune come “meno urgenti”. Tutto e sempre deve risultare fattibile, e possibilmente dar luogo all’apertura dei cantieri.
Vi sono ovviamente anche molte considerazioni soltanto indiziarie, per la difficoltà o l’impossibilità di reperire dati e aprire archivi assolutamente riservati, pur trattandosi di risorse e progetti di interesse pubblico. Questi problemi sono inoltre resi ancora più difficili dal fatto che tra oggi e alcune vicende sono trascorsi parecchi anni.
Il quadro complessivo che ne emerge tuttavia non consente maggiori dubbi sulla solidità dell’assunto."
Perspectives du système ferroviaire de transport de voyageurs. Faut-il mettre fin au développement de la grande vitesse à la française ?.
(Les Carnets de TDIE). TDIE (transport développement intermodalité environnement), Paris, 2012, 10 p. [formato PDF, 1,62 MB].
"Entre les gains de vitesse, l’amélioration des capacités et les facilités de correspondance aux noeuds du
réseau, il existe une gamme de réponses possibles en fonction des spécificités de chaque territoire, comme
le démontre la diversité des solutions mises en oeuvre chez nos voisins européens. Pour spectaculaire qu’il soit,
ce changement d’approche s’inscrit dans une évolution encore plus large et plus profonde : la proposition de
mettre en chantier une planification intégrée et cohérente du système de transport."
Per Kageson,
Environmental aspects of inter-city passenger transport. (Discussion Paper No 2009-28).
OECD/ITF, December 2009, 27 p. [formato PDF, 526 kB].
"Many governments in different parts of the world are investing in high speed rail. Some of them do so thinking that it will be an important part of climate change mitigation. Intercity traffic over medium distances is particularly interesting in the environmental context as it constitutes the only transport segment where aircraft, trains, coaches and cars naturally compete for market shares.
This report calculates the effect on emissions from building a new high speed link that connects two major cities located 500 km apart. It assumes that emissions from new vehicles and aircraft in 2025 can be used as a proxy for the emissions during a 50 year investment depreciation period. The emissions from the marginal production of electricity, used by rail and electric vehicles, are estimated to amount on average to 530 gram per kWh for the entire period. Fuels used by road vehicles are assumed to be on average 80 percent fossil and 20 per cent renewable (with a 65% carbon efficiency in the latter case).
Traffic on the new line after a few years is assumed to consist to 20 per cent of journeys diverted from aviation, 20 per cent diverted from cars, 5 per cent from long-distance coaches, and 30 per cent from pre-existing trains. The remaining 25 per cent is new generated traffic. Under these assumptions would the investment result in a net reduction of CO2-emissions of about 9,000 tons per one million one-way trips. Assuming 10 million single journeys per year, the total reduction would be 90,000 tons.
When the price of CO2 is $40 per ton, the socio-economic benefit of the reduction would amount to $3.6 million, which is very little in the context of high speed rail. The sensitivity analysis shows that alternative assumptions do not significantly change the outcome. One may also have to consider the impact on climate change from building the new line. Construction emissions for a line of this length may amount to several million tons of CO2.
There is no cause to prohibit investment in high speed rail on environmental grounds so long as the carbon gains made in traffic balances the emissions caused during construction. However, marketing high speed rail as a part of the solution to climate change is clearly wrong. Investment in infrastructure for modal shift should only be considered when traffic volumes are high enough to carry the cost. The principal benefits of high speed rail are time savings, additional capacity and generated traffic, not a reduction of greenhouse gases."
FILIERA CORTA, FOOD MILES (consumo di prodotti locali e riduzione di trasporti a lunga distanza)
Erik Mathijs, Annelies Van Hauwermeiren, Gert Engelen, Hannelore Coene,
Scientific Support Plan for a Sustainable Development Policy (SPDS II).
Instruments and institutions to develop local food systems. Final Report. Part1: Sustainable production and consumption patterns. (CP/59).
Belgian Science Policy, Brussels, April 2006, 83 p. [formato PDF, 778 kB]
"The aim of this project is to investigate whether local food systems (LFS) can contribute to more sustainable
production and consumption patterns and how the development of such systems can be
stimulated.
The objectives and expected outcomes of the project as originally laid out are:
1. to make an inventory of indicators and instruments used to increase citizens’
awareness of the environmental, economic and social impact of different food systems
(chapter 1),
2. to develop a scientifically sound set of indicators for Flanders after analysing their
validity and to introduce these indicators as instruments to be used by institutions
dealing with these issues (chapter 2),
3. to make an inventory of existing LFS in Flanders and of the institutions that facilitate
their establishment and working (chapter 3),
4. to investigate the potential to expand LFS by both institutions already active in this
field and other institutions and to facilitate the implementation of this potential (chapter
4),
5. to synthesize and disseminate these results by the establishment of a website, the
publication of a book and other material targeted at a wide audience and the production
of scientific publications (chapter 5)."
The Validity of Food Miles as an Indicator of Sustainable Development. Final Report produced for DEFRA.
Harwell, AEA Technology Environment, July 2005, 117 p. [formato PDF, 994 kB]
"The four key findings of the study are summarised below.
1. A single indicator based on total food kilometres is an inadequate
indicator of sustainability. The impacts of food transport are complex, and
involve many trade-offs between different factors. A single indicator based on
total food kilometres travelled would not be a valid indicator of sustainability. To
capture the complexities of the issue, we recommend a suite of indicators which
reflect the key adverse impacts of food transport (see below).
2. Data is available to provide and update a meaningful set of indicators on
an annual basis. A spreadsheet system for collating the data and calculating the
indicators accompanies the report. The key transport stages (HGV and LGV
transport in the UK, car shopping trips for food and international sea and air
freight) are covered by good quality DfT and HM Customs and Excise statistics
gathered annually. Areas where the data quality is poor are either of less policy
interest to DEFRA (road transport overseas), or currently have a negligible role in
UK food transport (rail, inland waterway).
3. Food transport has significant and growing impacts. Food transport
accounted for an estimated 30 billion vehicle kilometres in 2002, of which 82%
are in the UK. Road transport accounts for most of the vehicle kilometres, split
between cars, HGVs and LGVs.
- Food transport accounts for 25% of all HGV vehicle kilometres in the UK.
- Food transport produced 19 million tonnes of carbon dioxide in 2002, of
which 10 million tonnes were emitted in the UK (almost all from road
transport), representing 1.8% of the total annual UK CO2 emissions, and
8.7% of the total emissions of the UK road sector.
- Transport of food by air has the highest CO2 emissions per tonne, and
is the fastest growing mode. Although air freight of food accounts for only
1% of food tonne kilometres and 0.1% of vehicle kilometres, it produces 11%
of the food transport CO2 equivalent emissions.
4. The direct environmental, social and economic costs of food transport are
over Lst9 billion each year, and are dominated by congestion. Using
standard government methodology, the social cost of congestion, associated with
food transport is estimated at Lst5 billion. This is over 50% of the social costs
associated with food transport, and arises from the use of HGVs, LGVs, and cars
are associated with food transport in the UK. Accidents lead to social costs of Lst2
billion per year (Table E1). Greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, noise, and
infrastructure cost a further Lst2 billion. The total costs are very significant
compared with the gross value added of the agriculture sector (Lst6.4 billion), and
the food and drink manufacturing sector (Lst19.8 billion) in 2002. It should be
noted that these cost estimates depend on the assumptions and methodology
used. For example, the congestion costs are marginal costs, as the impact of an
extra kilometre travelled depends on the existing level of traffic. The use of
average costs, although not recommended, would give lower values. Also, the
costs reflect only immediate impacts. For congestion, these impacts are short
term and reversible, whereas climate change impacts are long term and
irreversible. It should be stressed that not all impacts are included in this
assessment (for example noise, infrastructure and congestion costs from air
transport are not quantified)."
Stefanie Böge,
The well-travelled yogurt pot: lessons for new freight transport policies and regional production.
World Transport Policy & Practice, Vol. 1 No. 1, 1995, pp. 7-11 [formato PDF, 42 kB]
Stefanie Böge,
Der Weg eines Erdbeerjoghurts. Erfassung und Bewertung von Transportvorgängen: Die produktbezogene Transportkettenanalyse.
Dortmund, 1992, 29 p. [formato PDF, 194 kB]
Japan International Transport Institute,
Seminar on Global Warming and Road Transportation: The Impact of Motorization in Fast-Growing
Developing Nations as China and India. Research paper.
Washington DC, November 2005, 41 p. [formato PDF, 578 kB]
Iwao Matsuoka (Institute of Economic Research, Kyoto University),
Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Road Transportation in China.
Washington DC, November 2005, 19 slides [formato PDF, 90 kB]
Sanjay Marwah (Japan International Transport Institute),
Impacts of Motorization in China and India on Global Warming.
The Importance of Forecasts and Policy Measures.
Washington DC, November 2005, 13 slides [formato PDF, 285 kB]
Philippe Mühlstein, Energie, transport
et effet de serre : l’impasse néo-libérale, Attac-France, 13.05.2005, 9 p. [formato Word, 81 KB].
Stephan Brückl, Walter Molt, La verità sui costi. Infrastrutture viarie e
sviluppo economico. (traduzione italiana di: Kostenwahrheit - Verkehrsinfrastruktur und
wirtschaftliche Entwicklung. Studie des Süddeutschen Instituts für nachhaltiges
Wirtschaften und Oeko-Logistik GmbH im Auftrag vom Transitforum Austria-Tirol,
1996. Edizione italiana a cura della CIPRA Italia, Torino, 1997, 63 p. [non esiste in formato elettronico]
CONCORRENZA, LIBERALIZZAZIONE, PRIVATIZZAZIONE NEI TRASPORTI
Andrea Boitani,
Riforma e controriforma dei trasporti pubblici locali,
pubblicato in ASTRID-Rassegna, n.12 del 2005, 12 p. [formato PDF, 74 kB].
Commento sulla prima fase della riforma dei servizi pubblici locali, e la ricaduta della nuova normativa
sui trasporti pubblici locali.
Gerardo Marletto,
L’applicazione della
concorrenza ai trasporti italiani: una valutazione critica. ISFORT, Roma,
gennaio 2006, 52 p. [formato Word, 265 kB]
Marco Ponti, Andrea Boitani,
Concorrenza
e regolazione dei trasporti in Italia, Milano, 12 settembre 2005, 13 slides [formato PDF, 470 kB].
Carlo Scarpa, Andrea Boitani, Paolo M. Panteghini, Luca Pellegrini,
Marco Ponti, Come far
ripartire le liberalizzazioni nei servizi, p. 43+161 [formato PDF, 228 kB +
1,40 MB] e 24 slides [formato PowerPoint, 660 kB].
TRASFERIMENTO MODALE (DALLA STRADA ALLA FERROVIA O AL TRASPORTO NAVALE) E LOGISTICA
Soyoung (Iris) You, Gunwoo Lee, Stephen G. Ritchie, Jean-Daniel Saphores, Mana Sangkapichai, Roberto Ayala,
Air Pollution Impacts of Shifting San Pedro Bay Ports Freight from Truck to Rail in Southern California. (UCTC-FR-2010-07).
University of California Transportation Center, Irvine, March 2010, 22 p. [formato PDF, 553 kB].
"Escalating concerns about air quality in Southern California have led authorities of the Ports of Los
Angeles and Long Beach, also known as the San Pedro Bay Ports (SPBP), to consider and adopt a
number of emission mitigation measures. One possibility is to shift to trains some of the containers
currently transported by drayage trucks. This alternative is attractive because it would decrease
congestion and air pollution on the main freeways (I-710 and I-110) and arterials that serve the SPBP.
In addition, it would increase road safety along the busy Alameda freight corridor between the SBBP
and downtown Los Angeles. One drawback would be an increase in pollutant emissions from train
operations in the Alameda corridor, but trains tend to pollute less than trucks per ton-mile and new
federal regulations are tightening the emission standards for diesel locomotives. The goal of this paper
is to quantify the net impact of such a modal shift on the emissions of PM and NOx, which are the
two air pollutants of most concern in the SPBP area. Our analysis relies on microscopic simulation to
better capture emissions resulting from stop-and-go traffic on the freeways serving the SPBP. We
find that emissions of both NOX and PM2.5 can be significantly reduced by switching from drayage
trucks to trains. This suggests that modal shift should be encouraged, especially if there is unused
train capacity, and as long as it does not conflict with the shippers’ interests."
Martin Lambrecht, Christoph Erdmenger, Michael Bölke, Volker Brenk, Kilian Frey, Helge Jahn, Andrea Kolodziej, Ines Kruppa, Stephan Naumann, Dorothea Salz, Lars Schade, Hedwig Verron,
Strategie für einen nachhaltigen Güterverkehr [Strategia per un trasporto merci sostenibile]. (Texte 18/2009). Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, Oktober 2009, 137 p. [formato PDF, 2,71 MB]
Christina S. Casgar, David J. DeBoer, David L. Parkinson,
Rail Short Haul Intermodal Corridor Case Studies: Industry Context and Issues.
Foundation for Intermodal Research & Education, in association with U.S. Dept. of Transportation,
Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., March 2003, 50 p. [formato PDF, 802 kB].
"The objective of this report is to provide an industry context for public officials who are interested in rail short haul
intermodal corridors and to offer a template for analyzing related costs and benefits. Public agency analysis and investment
in short haul corridors present a fundamentally new sort of challenge for public sector transportation planners. Therefore
the background material and the case studies open the door to a number of short haul intermodal issues, which are subject
to an increasing level of state and local attention."
Analisi delle potenzialità del trasporto intermodale lungo corridoi merci negli USA a distanze inferiori a 700 miglia (Short haul),
confrontando i costi di trasporto su strada e su ferro.
Transportation Economics and Management Systems, Inc. (TEMS),
Impact of high oil prices on freight transportation : modal shift potential in five corridors. Technical report.
Maritime Administration, U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Washington, D.C., October 2008, 60 p. [formato PDF, 768 kB].
"In an environment of high oil prices, the results of this study, as well as the previous NC/NV Market
Assessment, indicate that container shipping services are likely to become viable not only on the GLSLS but
now also on the Mississippi River and Gulf Coast corridors as well. Further work to follow up such high
level analysis with greater market detail appears to be warranted.
Overall, the impact of higher oil prices is to create a strong case for investing in the waterborne
transportation industry – for both inland and coastal distribution. Potential increases in oil prices already
forecast could increase transport costs two- to eight-fold. Despite the wide range in forecast oil prices,
even the minimum forecast is creating a transportation environment more like that of Europe in the 1990’s
than previous short-term fuel price hikes previously experienced in the United States.
Historically, coastal and inland waterborne transportation has enjoyed a larger market share in Europe
than in the United States because of Europe’s higher inland rail and truck transport costs that make water
cost-effective. The recent European experience also demonstrates that water-based logistics chains can
work effectively, for distributing not only bulk goods and industrial products but consumer goods as well.
This could well become the case in the United States, if the cost differential between truck, rail, and water
transportation is sustained at the levels reached during the summer of 2008 as the result of higher oil
prices.
Finally, it is recommended that fuel price levels be considered in future freight planning with respect to the
relative roles of the various modes of transportation. While rail has enjoyed dramatically improved
productivity in recent years, many of its gains relative to water stand to be erased should fuel prices rise
to anticipated levels in coming years. As water is the most energy-efficient mode of freight transportation,
planners should recognize it is likely to play a greatly expanded role in the future. Hence, national policy
towards the water mode needs to become more proactive. Given higher oil prices, market forces could
well promote a significantly enhanced role for water in the U.S. transportation system, provided that the
potential for this modal shift is recognized and supported by public policies that are directed toward
developing the needed infrastructure and in encouraging industry to make the needed investments."
Allianz pro Schiene,
Mehr Bahn wagen: 13 erfolgreiche Verlagerungsbeispiele aus dem Güterverkehr.
(13 casi di successo di trasferimento modale nel trasporto merci).
Berlin, 2007, 48 p. [formato PDF, 1,37 MB].
L'opuscolo contiene 13 schede di casi di aziende che, negli ultimi anni, sono riuscite a trasferire il trasporto di
determinate merci dalla strada alla rotaia o al trasporto combinato, all'interno della Germania o tra la Germania e l'estero,
su distanze che variano tra i 40 e i 3.000 Km.
Inhibitors to the Growth of Rail Freight. Research Project carried out for the Scottish Executive by the Road Haulage Association Ltd.
Scottish Executive, Edinburgh, September 2007, 13 p. [formato PDF, 696 KB].
"This report outlines the findings of a research study into the opportunities for multi-modal shift of freight
from our roads and onto rail. The study was funded on the basis of its potential to support Scottish
Ministers’ policy of transferring freight onto more environmentally friendly rail, or waterborne, alternatives.
In particular, the study sought to establish how easy or difficult it might be for any of the small companies
(with fleets of less than 50 HGVs) that predominate Scotland’s road haulage industry to use rail as an
alternative, and more environmentally friendly, mode of freight transport.
In this report of their study, the authors argue that by combining the strengths of the road haulage and rail
freight industries, there would be advantages for road hauliers, rail freight operators and their customers, in
addition to environmental benefit." Il rapporto mette in evidenza i limiti delle compagnie di trasporto ferroviario
scozzesi in termini di flessibilità, completezza del servizio e costo, il che rende molto difficile assorbire traffico
merci dal trasporto su strada, e cita diversi casi di "prove" effettuate da aziende scozzesi con risultati negativi. Secondo l'associazione dei trasportatori stradali,
servono anche in Scozia aziende intermodali specializzate come Hupac, Cemat ecc., mentre le attuali aziende di trasporto
ferroviario non sono all'altezza del compito che il governo scozzese vorrebbe loro affidare, cioè il trasferimento dalla strada alla rotaia.
Istituto di Ricerche Economiche (Università della Svizzera Italiana),
Verkehrsverlagerung: Zauberformel oder Wunschdenken: Grundlagen, Trends und Thesen.
(Il trasferimento modale: formula magica o pio desiderio? Fondamenti, tendenze e tesi).
Erstellt im Auftrag von SPEDLOGSWISS, Verband schweizerischer Speditions- und Logistikunternehmen,
Lugano, Mai 2003, 23 p. [formato PDF, 370 KB].
Sergio Bologna,
Val di Susa: un tunnel per trasportare aria?
ItaliaMondo, maggio 2006, 3 p. [formato PDF, 624 KB].
(Esperto di logistica e docente universitario, il prof. Bologna denuncia l'inefficienza della logistica italiana e
chiarisce che gli imprenditori chiedono più infrastrutture senza capire che queste non risolveranno i problemi, dato che
in Italia quasi metà dei camion circolano vuoti. Bisogna investire invece nelle filiere e catene logistiche).
TRASPORTI INUTILI (O TRASFERIBILI SU FERROVIA O NAVE)
Karl Regner,
Die
Öffentliche Hand als Verursacher von vermeidbarem Lkw-Fernverkehr im Land
Salzburg, Salzburg, 2005, 13 p. [formato PDF, 118 kB] (studio sui trasporti
di merci su strada indotti dal settore pubblico nel Land di Salisburgo (Austria)
che potrebbero essere ridotti o sostituiti da trasporto su ferrovia; l’autore
analizza i diversi tipi di trasporto e di prodotti trasportati, e individua le
alternative possibili)
Karl Regner,
Die
Öffentliche Hand in Kärnten als Verursacher von vermeidbarem Lkw-Fernverkehr,
Salzburg, 2005, 10 p. [formato PDF, 99 kB] (studio sui trasporti indotti dal
settore pubblico in Carinzia (Austria) che potrebbero essere ridotti o sostituiti
da trasporto su ferrovia)
Trasporto
di rifiuti su strada e su ferrovia in Svizzera e dalla Germania alla
Svizzera. Documentazione per la stampa (conferenza stampa del 14.11.2005 a
Berna) prodotta dalla Iniziativa delle Alpi, 9 pagine [formato PDF, 318 kB].
Premio “Rote Teufelsstein” per il 2005.
Trasporti
assurdi sulle strade europee, swissinfo, 30.10.2004. Premio “Rote
Teufelsstein” per il 2004, attribuito dalla Iniziativa delle Alpi alla
panetteria francese Délifrance che importa dall’Olanda il pane venduto in
Svizzera (panini preconfezionati).
Un assurdo trasporto
di acque minerali. La Nestlé Waters, leader mondiale della
distribuzione di acqua in bottiglia, si è vista consegnare il “sasso rosso del
diavolo” (premio trasporti inutili per il 2003).
INFRASTRUTTURE DI TRASPORTO E SVILUPPO
Michel Didier et Rémy Prud'homme,
Infrastructures de transport, mobilité et croissance.
La Documentation française, Paris, 2007, 242 p. [formato PDF, 1,51 MB].
"Le rapport rappelle que notre politique des transports est fortement orientée par trois idées : le renforcement de la concurrence, la décentralisation et la
politique dite de « report modal ». Cette dernière vise à transférer des ressources de la route vers les « modes de transport alternatifs à la route ». La
justification de cette politique de report modal est de limiter les nuisances (accidents, dégradation de l’environnement) des transports, notamment de
la route qui est aujourd’hui le moyen de déplacement largement dominant. Une des questions centrales abordée par les auteurs est celle de savoir jusqu’où
cette politique peut être poussée sans contraindre la mobilité des personnes et des marchandises et peser sur la croissance économique et
sur l’emploi."
Il rapporto esamina il ruolo economico dei trasporti in Francia, la domanda e l'offerta,
i costi sociali, il trasferimento modale, il ruolo delle infrastrutture e il loro finanziamento.
Transport demand to 2025 & the economic case for road pricing and investment.
December 2006, 166 p. [formato PDF, 982 kB]. Allegato allo studio di Sir Eddington.
Questa ricerca è basata sulle previsioni di traffico al 2025 nel Regno Unito
(National Transport Model) e analizza i possibili investimenti nelle infrastrutture di trasporto
in presenza o assenza del road pricing, con i loro impatti economici, sociali ed ambientali.
Michael Mann,
Step change transport improvements: an assessment of the potential for 'step change'
transport improvements to generate wider economic benefits.
2006, 38 p. [formato PDF, 308 kB]. Allegata allo studio di Sir Eddington per il governo
britannico, questa ricerca analizza vantaggi e svantaggi
di una linea ferroviaria ad alta velocità nel contesto del Regno Unito. La conclusione è che
i vantaggi economici sarebbero limitati e, soprattutto, bisognerebbe prima esaminare il possibile
impiego dei grandi investimenti necessari in tutta una serie di opzioni alternative, tra cui il
miglioramento delle infrastrutture e dei servizi esistenti.
"Conclusions on the strategic economic case for High Speed Rail:
41. Transformational economic benefits are unlikely to arise from a north-south high
speed line because:
Marco Ponti,
Andrea Boitani, I
grandi progetti infrastrutturali: divergenze sui criteri di valutazione. La
lezione del ponte sullo Stretto. 28.11.2002, Tratto
dal sito http://www.lavoce.info [formato PDF, 18 KB]
INFRASTRUTTURE DI TRASPORTO – PARTECIPAZIONE ALLE DECISIONI E ALLA PIANIFICAZIONE
Commission nationale du débat publique.
La legge francese, anche in applicazione della Convenzione di Aarhus, organizza la partecipazione
del pubblico ai dibattiti sui progetti di grandi infrastrutture.
"Le principe de participation résulte d’une part d’une prise de conscience des impacts
de certains projets d’aménagement ou d’équipement sur l’environnement et d’autre d’une
évolution dans la conception du principe de concertation préalable à la réalisation des
projets d’aménagement du territoire."
Questo sito contiene la documentazione sui dibattiti in corso e conclusi, con le decisioni definitive prese dal governo.
COWI, Analisi
degli studi condotti da LTF in merito al progetto Lione-Torino (sezione
internazionale). Rapporto finale [commissionato da DG-TREN della
Commissione Europea], aprile 2006, 158 p. [formato PDF, 1,15 MB].
TAV : Toscana batte Piemonte?
Un bilancio dopo dieci anni sulla
costruzione della linea ferroviaria ad alta velocità nel Mugello e in Toscana:
gli impatti ambientali, i movimenti popolari e il ruolo dei Comuni e della
Regione. Interventi di Giovanni Maltinti (IRPET), Gianni Bechelli (TAV), Piera
Ballabio (Legambiente Mugello), Claudio Corbatti (sindaco di Fiorenzuola),
Gianni Gianassi (sindaco di Sesto Fiorentino), Girolamo Dell’Olio (Associazione Idra), Riccardo Conti
(Regione Toscana), Stefano Rossi (ARPAT Firenze). Idee sulla Toscana n.55,
IRPET, Firenze, 29 febbraio 2006, 16 p. [formato PDF, 70 kB] [!! pagina eliminata dal sito dell'Irpet !!]
Infrastrutture e territorio nel Friuli Venezia
Giulia Contributo per il XXV Congresso INU a cura del Direttivo INU FVG, Roma, 1
e 2 dicembre 2005, 4 pag. [formato Word, 36 kB]. Per uscire da questa impasse sembra,
quindi, necessario che il soggetto pubblico responsabile debba dotarsi di nuove
regole di governo e di nuovi strumenti di pianificazione e di progettazione
delle opere basati sulla ricerca di una condivisione con tutti quegli attori
che, a livello locale ed extralocale, possono offrire spunti, conoscenze e
progettualità in grado di indurre un salto qualitativo sulle scelte a
disposizione ed un parallelo ampliamento del vantaggio pubblico complessivo. …
Il problema, cioè, non è come calare un opera in un territorio considerato,
nella migliore delle ipotesi, un supporto neutro ma come elevare il progetto di
un’infrastruttura (riconosciuta come necessaria) a ‘progetto territoriale’
costruito in relazione ad un sistema di conoscenze condiviso con i territori
interessati.”
RECUPERO E RIUSO DI INFRASTRUTTURE (POCO UTILIZZATE O DISMESSE)
Karl Krähmer,
Studio per un progetto integrato sul territorio della ferrovia CuneoVentimiglia/Nizza,
tesi di laurea triennale, a.a. 2013-2014, Politecnico di Torino, Corso di Laurea in Pianificazione Territoriale, Urbanistica e Paesaggistico-Ambientale, 18.12.2014, 84 p. [formato PDF, 33,4 MB].
"Questa tesi ha lo scopo di definire delle linee guida per un progetto territoriale integrato che metta in valore la ferrovia CuneoNizza/Ventimiglia ed evidenzi quindi le potenzialità di sviluppo che essa presenta per il suo territorio".
East West Rail (aiming to be England’s first major railway re-opening) is a major project to establish a strategic railway connecting East Anglia with Central, Southern and Western England.
The project is being promoted by the East West Rail Consortium – a group of local authorities and businesses with an interest in improving access to and from East Anglia and the Milton Keynes South Midlands growth area.
SELRAP - Skipton East Lancs Railway Action Partnership. The campaign to reopen the 11 mile missing rail link between Lancashire & Yorkshire - linking cities & regions across the north.
The 11.5 mile link between Skipton and Colne is the missing link in what would otherwise be the lowest level trans-Pennine rail route between the Humber & West Coast ports, between Preston and the West Coast Main Line and Leeds and the cities of Yorkshire. It is an alternative to the heavily graded and trafficked Huddersfield & Calder Valley trans-Pennine routes, and also avoids the already congested lines in Manchester. Although under increasing threat, the trackbed is essentially intact and the railway could be restored at a relatively low cost: any further incursion would destroy a resource of national value and would be contrary to government policies.
The line connects the socially deprived and depressed areas of north-east Lancashire (Nelson, Burnley, Colne, etc) to the more prosperous West Yorkshire area, and provides an alternative to road transport for people visiting Skipton/the Aire Valley from Lancashire, and vice versa. Car ownership is low in East Lancashire leading to social exclusion.
"We are a volunteer campaign group whose aim is to campaign for the re-instatement of the Colne-Skipton line as a trans-pennine route, a part of the national network, linking the Aire Valley and Yorkshire to East Lancashire, Manchester, Preston and beyond.
As of 8th March, 2012, the Campaign has the support of 808 organisations, 725 individual politicians, our 500 members and 67 affiliated groups."
Massimo Andreis Allamandola,
La linea ferroviaria Ceva-Ormea: una risorsa locale per il futuro del trasporto pubblico in Alta Valle Tanaro.
Garessio (CN), 2012, 6 p. [formato PDF, 1,32 MB].
Il documento contiene alcune riflessioni sul futuro della Ceva-Ormea, mirate a prevenire la chiusura del servizio ferroviario, che
invece dovrebbe essere ottimizzato, rendendolo integrato e competitivo all’interno dell’offerta turistica e pendolare tra il Piemonte e la Liguria.
Rail Roya, Nouvelles de la ligne Roya-Bevera / Notizie dalla linea Roia-Bevera.
Blog bilingue francese e italiano per il mantenimento e la valorizzazione della linea Nizza-Ventimiglia-Cuneo-Torino.
Gadea Alonso Peraita Cabrera [et al.],
Posibilidades y viabilidad para la reapertura del Canfranc.
Zaragoza, Consejo Económico y Social de Aragón, 2009, 196 p. [formato PDF, 3,48 MB].
"Consideraciones finales y análisis DAFO:
• El análisis contenido en el estudio realizado permite concluir que la explotación técnica y económica del tramo Jaca-Bedous, en especial el subtramo Canfranc-Bedous, es muy
difícil y supone un incremento de los costes de tracción, aunque inferior a los de cambio de ejes o trasbordo en la frontera que se producen actualmente.
• Se plantea por tanto un escenario que, a medio plazo (año 2013), con inversiones asumibles en la Alternativa A.1, con una cifra de no más de 500 millones de euros, podrían
ser razonablemente asumidas. La tasa de rendimiento del proyecto es del 3,68% (sin electrificar) y del 4,87% (electrificada) para el operador, ascendiendo hasta el 6,26% (sin
electrificar) y el 5,86% (electrificada) si se incluyen las diferencias de los costes externos como beneficios sociales del proyecto.
• La rentabilidad del túnel de baja cota se ha obtenido de los estudios de la Travesía Central Pirenaica y no han sido objeto de análisis crítico.
• La reapertura supondría un nuevo paso a Francia por unas Regiones que no cuentan actualmente con infraestructura ferroviaria que les comunique.
• La línea es complementaria a la Travesía Central Pirenaica, que es un proyecto estratégicamente mucho más ambicioso. Su ventaja competitiva es que puede ponerse en
marcha en un plazo más corto (Escenario 2013) con una inversión relativamente modesta
(300-500 millones) en comparación con el túnel de baja cota que no estaría operativo antes de 2030 ó 2035 y cuya inversión es, por su mayor capacidad, muy superior.
Además, si se presta un buen servicio ferroviario a las mercancías, la reapertura del Canfranc
permitiría ir consolidando clientes, usos y experiencia que redundaría positivamente cuando se abriese el túnel de baja cota.
• Diversifica el reparto de los tráficos de la cadena pirenaica, aliviando la posible saturación de los pasos fronterizos existentes.
• Para Aragón el Canfranc es una prioridad, ya que le aproxima a Europa y atrae actividad
a la región. Además se crearía la posibilidad de convertir a Zaragoza en un importante nudo logístico ferroviario.
• La apertura de Canfranc se podría hacer por fases, de manera que en lo que respecta al transporte de viajeros tuviera en principio un fin turístico regional uniendo Aquitania y
Aragón. La liberalización el mercado en el futuro puede ser una oportunidad para dar acceso a las pistas de esquí, turismo de ocio, viajes transfronterizos regionales entre Aragón
y Aquitania y entre Francia y España.
• La saturación de la red viaria de transporte de las infraestructuras en los actuales pasos de Cataluña y País Vasco son un argumento de peso para la reapertura.
• El ferrocarril es notablemente más favorable desde la óptica medioambiental que la carretera. El ejemplo del transporte de automóviles a través del Pirineo es bien evidente:
donde un camión para coches puede cargar entre 8 y 10 vehículos, el ferrocarril puede transportar alrededor de 500 automóviles por servicio."
La
Coordinadora para la Reapertura del Ferrocarril Canfranc-Olorón (CREFCO)
trabaja para recuperar la línea internacional Zaragoza-Canfranc-Pau, cerrada en la parte francesa desde el 27 de marzo de 1970. El Ferrocarril de Canfranc es la mejor alternativa para mejorar las comunicaciones entre España y Francia respetando el medio ambiente pirenaico
(Zaragoza).
Coordinamento di associazioni e sindacati per il recupero della linea a binario unico (in gran parte non elettrificata)
Zaragoza-Canfranc-Pau, che attraversa i Pirenei. Il tratto francese è stato chiuso nel 1970, di recente la regione dell'Aquitania ha
finanziato il recupero del tratto Oloron-Bedous.
Comité pour la réouverture de la ligne Oloron-Canfranc (CRÉLOC).
Le CRÉLOC est une association loi 1901 qui œuvre à la remise en service du chemin de fer Pau-Saragosse, en collaboration avec son homologue aragonaise, la CREFCO – Coordinación por la reapertura del ferrocarril Canfranc-Olorón.
Le CRÉLOC milite pour la réouverture complète de la ligne internationale Pau-Oloron-Canfranc-Saragosse en 25 000 volts et à écartement UIC de 1,435 m. La désélectrification provisoire du 1 500 volts continu, sur le tronçon Pau--Oloron à partir de septembre prochain, s’inscrit dans la perspective d’une réouverture modernisée commencée avec la remise à neuf de la voie sur Pau--Oloron et la réhabilitation du tronçon Oloron--Bedous pour 2010, voulue et financée par la Région Aquitaine.
(Bedous, vallée d’Aspe, F).
El Canfranero. Sito trilingue di Jürg Suter (Deutsch, Castellano, Français) sulla ferrovia Zaragoza-Canfranc-Pau,
che contiene anche la sua tesi "Inwertsetzung der Bahnlinie Zaragoza–Canfranc–Pau. Bedürfnisse und mögliche Realisierung des Angebotes im Personen- und Güterverkehr",
Geographisches Institut der Universität Bern, tradotta anche in francese e spagnolo.
43. High speed rail options or other new build infrastructure (eg new commuter or freight
lines) could help tackling such problems by freeing up capacity for commuter services, but
this would require very large sums of money. Its value for money would need to be
compared with the full range of alternative options, including incremental improvements to
existing transport infrastructure and services."